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> Anatomy > Body Location or Region > Motor Cortex

Motor Cortex

The motor cortex is a critical brain region responsible for the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements.
It is located in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex and is organized somatotopically, with different areas controlling different body parts.
The motor cortex receives input from various sensory areas and integrates this information to generate appropriate motor commands.
It plays a key role in the initiation, modulation, and fine-tuning of movement, and its dysfunction is implicated in various neurological disorders, such as paralysis, tremors, and movement disorders.
Studying the motor cortex is crucial for understanding the neural mechanisms underlying motor control and for developing therapies to treat motor-related impairments.

Most cited protocols related to «Motor Cortex»

1
GABA-Edited MRS in Healthy Adults
Cited 172 times
To demonstrate the utility of the Gannet software, GABA-edited spectra were acquired in 10 healthy adult volunteers, who provided written informed consent with the approval of the Cardiff University School of Psychology ethics board. In each subject, spectra (repeated four times) were acquired for each of three brain regions: occipital (OCC; including primary visual cortex); sensorimotor (SM; including primary somatosensory and motor cortex); and dorsolateral prefrontal (DLPF), as shown in Figure 3. Experimental parameters were relatively standard for the field (2 (link)), including: GE Signa HDx 3 Tesla (T) scanner using an eight-channel phased-array head coil for receive; repetition time (TR) 1.8 s; echo time (TE) 68 ms; 332 transients of 4k datapoints sampled at 5 kHz; 16 ms Gaussian editing pulse with 95 Hz bandwidth applied at 1.9 ppm in ON scans and 7.46 ppm in OFF scans in an interleaved manner; voxel size 3 × 3 × 3 cm3; acquisition time 10 min. Data were acquired on a GE Signa HDx 3T scanner; a two-step phase cycle, which was time averaged on the scanner so that each FID in the exported data represented two TRs or a period of 3.6 s. OFF/ON interleaving of editing was performed outside the phase cycle loop, so that lines of the exported data were alternately OFF, ON, etc. The unsuppressed water signals from the same volumes were also acquired for quantification.
As mentioned above these GABA+-edited data contain substantial contributions from macromolecular contaminants, which can be removed by a symmetrical editing scheme (22 (link),23 (link)). To demonstrate the ability of Gannet to model MM-suppressed GABA spectra, data were acquired at a TE of 80 ms (22 (link)) in a single healthy subject with 20 ms editing pulses at 1.9 ppm (ON scans) and 1.5 ppm (OFF scans). Other experimental parameters include: TR 2 s; 2k datapoints sampled at 2 kHz; 3 × 3 × 3 cm3 voxel in a primary sensorimotor region (4 (link)).
Edden R.A., Puts N.A., Harris A.D., Barker P.B, & Evans C.J. (2013). Gannet: A Batch-Processing Tool for the Quantitative Analysis of Gamma-Aminobutyric Acid–Edited MR Spectroscopy Spectra. Journal of magnetic resonance imaging : JMRI, 40(6), 1445-1452.
Publication 2013
Adult Brain ECHO protocol gamma Aminobutyric Acid Head Healthy Volunteers Motor Cortex Pulse Rate Pulses Radionuclide Imaging Striate Cortex Transients
2
Bimanual Finger Tapping in fMRI
Cited 58 times

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Publication 2011
A-192 Basal Ganglia Epistropheus Fingers Foot Head Human Body Motor Cortex Movement Nervousness Occipital Lobe Precentral Gyrus Precipitating Factors Supplementary Motor Area TRIO protein, human
3
Imaging Spine Dynamics in Mice
Cited 53 times
Young (1 month old) and adult (> 4 months old) mice expressing YFP in a small subset of cortical neurons (YFP-H line29 (link)) were used in all the experiments. Young mice were trained on the single-seed reaching task for up to 16 days and displayed a stereotypical learning curve (Fig. 1b). Naive adult mice and mice that had been previously trained with the single-seed reaching task in adolescence were trained with either the same reaching task or a novel capellini handling task for up to 8 days (see Methods). Apical dendrites of layer V pyramidal neurons, 10–100 μm below the cortical surface, were repeatedly imaged in mice under ketamine–xylazine anaesthesia with two-photon laser scanning microscopy. Spine dynamics in the motor cortex and other regions were followed over various intervals. Imaged regions were initially guided by stereotaxic measurements. In 14 mice, intracortical microstimulation (see Methods) was performed at the end of repetitive imaging to determine the location of acquired images relative to the functional forelimb motor map (Supplementary Fig. 2). In total, 32,079 spines from 209 mice were tracked over 2–4 imaging sessions, with 121 mice imaged twice, 79 mice three times and 9 mice imaged four times. Spine formation and elimination rates in each mouse were determined by comparing images of the same dendrites acquired at two time points; all changes were expressed relative to the total number of spines seen in the initial images. The number of spines analysed and the percentage of spine elimination and formation under various experimental conditions are summarized in Supplementary Table 1. To quantify spine size, calibrated spine head diameters were measured over time30 (link) (Supplementary Notes). All data are presented as mean ± s.d., unless otherwise stated. P-values were calculated using the Student's t-test. A non-parametric Mann–Whitney U-test was used to confirm all conclusions.
Xu T., Yu X., Perlik A.J., Tobin W.F., Zweig J.A., Tennant K., Jones T, & Zuo Y. (2009). Rapid formation and selective stabilization of synapses for enduring motor memories. Nature, 462(7275), 915-919.
Publication 2009
Adult Anesthesia Cortex, Cerebral Dendrites Head Ketamine Laser Scanning Microscopy Learning Curve Mice, Laboratory Motor Cortex Neurons Pyramidal Cells Stereotypic Movement Disorder Upper Extremity Vertebral Column Vision Xylazine
4
Neuroimaging for Precision TMS Targeting and Safety
Cited 49 times

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Publication 2020
Brain Cerebrovascular Accident Congenital Abnormality Cortex, Cerebral Electroconvulsive Therapy Motor Cortex Multiple Sclerosis Muscle Rigidity Neoplasms Neuronavigation Patients Safety Scalp Seizures Therapeutics Tissues Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation, Repetitive
5
Correcting fNIRS Signals with CBSI
Cited 34 times

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Publication 2009
Fingers Motor Cortex oxytocin, 1-desamino-(O-Et-Tyr)(2)-

Most recents protocols related to «Motor Cortex»

1
Asleep-Awake-Asleep Craniotomy with Cortical Mapping
We adopted the asleep-awake-asleep protocol for awake craniotomy with direct brain stimulation, and tumor removal was performed on all 80 patients. After removing the bone flap, the patient was awakened, and cortical mapping was used to identify language and motor areas. The StealthStation S7 neuronavigation (Medtronic Navigation) was applied in each case to plan the surgical incision and identify tumor margins related to brain sulcal and gyral surface structures. Intraoperative ultrasound was also used to help distinguish the tumor boundaries. Before the brain shifts, numerical and letter tags were placed along the cortical tumor margins.
A biphasic current (pulse frequency 60 Hz; single pulse duration 0.5 msec) was delivered through a bipolar stimulator with a 5 mm interelectrode distance for cortical stimulation. The initial setting was 1 mA, gradually increasing the amplitude in 0.5-1 mA increments until reproducible response (motor or sensory function) was obtained or discharge potentials were detected (baseline 1 mA, maximum 8 mA). Stimulation was applied for 4 s at the indicated areas, with a pause of 2-4 s between stimulations. Cortical and subcortical regions were identified using a similar stimulation protocol.
Sensorimotor mapping was first performed to confirm the positive responses (movement and/or paresthesia). Stimulations were repeated at least three times to confirm the positive sites. A negative sensorimotor area was also indicated when no response occurred in the area of interest.
For language mapping, the patient was asked to perform three verbal tasks: counting (regular rhythm, from 1 to 10, repetitively), picture naming (DO80) and word-reading task to identify the essential cortical sites which might be inhibited by stimulation. During the picture naming task, the patient was asked to read a short phrase in Chinese as “this is a ……” before naming each picture to check whether seizures were generated and induced speech arrest if the patient could not name the picture successfully. During the word-reading task, the patient was asked to read Chinese words presented on the computer screen. The duration of each stimulation was also about 4 s. Between each actual stimulus interval, at least one picture was presented without stimulation, and no site was stimulated twice in succession. The types of language disturbances (speech arrest, dysarthria, phonetic/phonemic/semantic paraphasia, anomia, and alexia) found intraoperatively were classified by neuropsychological experts in our department.
By applying the same stimulation parameters, the glioma was removed with alternating resection and electrostimulation for subcortical functional mapping. The patient continuously performed the above tasks throughout glioma resection.
Wang Y., Guo S., Wang N., Liu J., Chen F., Zhai Y., Wang Y., Jiao Y., Zhao W., Fan C., Xue Y., Gao G., Ji P, & Wang L. (2023). The clinical and neurocognitive functional changes with awake brain mapping for gliomas invading eloquent areas: Institutional experience and the utility of The Montreal Cognitive Assessment. Frontiers in Oncology, 13, 1086118.
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Publication 2023
Alexia Anomia Bones Brain Cardiac Arrest Chinese Cortex, Cerebral Craniotomy Dysarthria Glioma Motor Cortex Movement Neoplasm, Adrenal Cortex Neoplasms Neuronavigation Paresthesia Patient Discharge Patients Pulse Rate Seizures Sensorimotor Cortex Speech Surgical Flaps Surgical Wound Ultrasonics
2
Awake Brain Tumor Resection Protocol
As previously described (11 (link)), the critical points of awake surgery include patient position, awake anesthesia, neuronavigation, intraoperative ultrasound, DES mapping, and tumor resection. All patients were anesthetized by administration of propofol and remifentanil by target-controlled infusion, using a laryngeal mask airway for intubation during the craniotomy. The ipsilateral critical sensory scalp nerves, pin insertion, and scalp incision sites were injected with local anesthetic (0.67% lidocaine and 0.33% ropivacaine) with 1:200,000 adrenaline to provide rapid and long-lasting local anesthesia while reducing bleeding. Anesthesia was withdrawn to wake up the patient. The location of the tumor was detected intraoperatively using ultrasound before brain mapping and tumor resection. DES mapping was performed using a 5-mm interval bipolar electrical nerve stimulator (Osiris NeuroStimulator; inomed Medizintechnik GmbH, Emmendingen, Germany) with a frequency of 60 Hz, a pulse duration of 1 ms, a current of 2–6 mA (usually 3–4 mA), and a duration of 1 s for motor and sensory tasks and 4 s for language or other cognitive tasks. Positive motor area stimulation was assumed when movements of the contralateral limb or face were induced. Positive stimulation affecting sensory areas was considered when an abnormal feeling was generated in the contralateral limb or face. Positive stimulation of language areas was considered when the patient exhibited counting arrest, anomia, speech repetition, or other language disturbances without twitching of the mouth. After cortical mapping, the lesion was removed by alternating resection and regular subcortical stimulation.
To protect functional pathways, the patient was asked to continue to move their arm and hand or leg, count numbers, or name pictures when the resection moved closer to the subcortical structures. If the patient experienced weakness of the limb, abnormal language, or abnormal sensation, subcortical DES was performed immediately with the same stimulation parameters. If the above-mentioned positive reaction occurred, it was confirmed to be an essential subcortical conduction pathway. The resection was then interrupted in this direction and was continued in other directions. If no positive response occurred, after the patient’s function recovered, resection was continued until the subcortical areas (positive stimulation) or normal meninges (such as the falx cerebri, fissures), ventricles, or arachnoid borders were encountered, or when more than 1 cm outside of normal white matter surrounding the tumor could be visualized. Tumors were resected 2 mm from the sulci near the eloquent brain areas and then were resected inside the pia mater to avoid damage to the vital supplying arteries in the subarachnoid space. Lesions were safely removed to the greatest extent possible to preserve the cortical and subcortical structures of critical functional areas, drainage veins, and supplying arteries.
Yao S., Yang R., Du C., Jiang C., Wang Y., Peng C, & Bai H. (2023). Maximal safe resection of diffuse lower grade gliomas primarily within central lobe using cortical/subcortical direct electrical stimulation under awake craniotomy. Frontiers in Oncology, 13, 1089139.
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Publication 2023
Anesthesia Anomia Arachnoid Maters Arteries Asthenia Brain Cognition Cortex, Cerebral Craniotomy Drainage Electric Conductivity Electricity Epinephrine Face Falx Cerebri Heart Ventricle Intubation Laryngeal Masks Lidocaine Local Anesthesia Meninges Motor Cortex Movement Neoplasms Neoplasms by Site Nervousness Neuronavigation Operative Surgical Procedures Oral Cavity Paresthesia Patients Pia Mater Propofol Pulse Rate Remifentanil Ropivacaine Scalp Speech Subarachnoid Space Ultrasonography Veins White Matter
3
Synthetic Aperture Magnetometry for Motor Cortical Oscillations
The synthetic aperture magnetometry (SAM) beamformer algorithm was used for source localization (Gaetz et al., 2010 (link); Vrba & Robinson, 2001 (link)). For each subject, noise‐normalized differential power values were calculated (integrated across a spectro‐temporal “active” window compared to a “baseline” time windows) at the spatial source location of each individual's peak responses and expressed as the pseudo‐t statistic, hereafter abbreviated as “pseudo‐t” (Nichols & Holmes, 2002 (link)). Using SAM, we first explored two frequency bands where we hypothesized modulations of motor cortical oscillations associated with the accelerator and brake pedal onsets (B‐ERD and MRGS). To establish the timing details of our experimental approach, B‐ERD (14–30 Hz), and MRGS (60–90 Hz) precise baseline and active window times and durations were established from visual inspection of the time‐frequency responses (TFRs). Specifically, B‐ERD differential source activity was assessed using a 5 s active window (−1.0 to 4.0 s) with respect to brake onset time, contrasted to a 5 s baseline period time‐referenced to the “Rest” period (3–8 s). MRGS was assessed using a 3 s active window (−1 to 2 s) with respect to brake onset and contrasted with a 3 s (5–8 s) baseline “Rest” period. The previous MEG study by Sakihara et al. (2014 (link)) reported FMT band responses during simulated driving. Thus, we also explored whether we would observe event‐specific synchrony in FMT (3–9 Hz). We used a 4 s active window (time locked to pedal onset) contrasted with a 4 s baseline time window (4–8 s), again following a visual assessment of FMT responses from time‐frequency data.
Walshe E.A., Roberts T.P., Ward McIntosh C., Winston F.K., Romer D, & Gaetz W. (2023). An event‐based magnetoencephalography study of simulated driving: Establishing a novel paradigm to probe the dynamic interplay of executive and motor function. Human Brain Mapping, 44(5), 2109-2121.
Publication 2023
Foot Motor Cortex
4
Driving Scenario for Motor Cortex Mapping
We custom‐built a prototypical driving scenario with only basic driving task demands for accelerating, coasting and braking, in order to facilitate identifying the landmark physiological responses of the motor cortex time‐locked to driving movements (accelerating and braking) without additional cognitive demands (as with ambient traffic, pedestrians, hazards, etc.). Starting with a basic drive allows for future studies to systematically increase complexity within the driving scene for a more challenging driving scenario. Thus, this drive required starting and stopping on cue at traffic light intersections on a straight roadway (speed management), with no turns, and no other vehicles or pedestrians (see Figure 2). The paradigm begins with a rest period (9 s) during which the drivers were instructed to look at the rest screen (with only the word “rest” projected on screen) and relax their hands and feet away from the vehicle controls. After rest, the simulated scene begins with the driver's vehicle in a stopped position at a red traffic‐light intersection on a simple straight roadway with no other vehicles present. After 1 s, the red light turns green, signaling participants to start accelerating, with the dashboard navigation screen indicating they should drive straight forward. As they approach the next traffic‐light intersection, the green light ahead turns to yellow, and then red, signaling to the participant to brake and stop at the upcoming intersection. Once the driver comes to a complete stop (at the intersection), the rest screen appears for the next trial starting with a rest period.
All participants were given an opportunity to practice driving in a simple driving scene on a simple roadway without other vehicles or pedestrians. Basic motor movements of driving were performed: (i) accelerating (using accelerator pedal), (ii) braking (using brake pedal), and (iii) practice steering on curved sections of the road. A limited set of practice trials were conducted to allow participants to become familiar with the task and vehicle controls (i.e., steering wheel and pedal sensitivity). For the experimental drive, there was a block of 20 repeated trials consisting of a rest period (9 s) at the beginning, followed by active driving (~19 s). The trial duration of the simulated drive depends largely on how fast the car travelled per trial. Drivers were asked to accelerate and maintain a speed of ~35 mph, thus the total of 20 trials took approximately 530 s (a maximum of 30 s per trial × 20 trials, thus 600 s maximum). Maximum speed and trial duration, as well as accelerator pedal and brake pedal onset timepoints, were recorded as behavioral indices of performance.
Just out of view, on the border of the driving scene projection, a photodiode is placed over a black/white voxel that displays luminance changes built into the driving simulation software presentation as event triggers for the MEG data, for example, marking when each rest period ended and when the traffic lights changed color. These markers were used for defining the event/cue‐related epochs for MEG analysis. Mean values for each cue‐response latency were noted and mean accelerator pedal and brake pedal onset times are plotted along with the percent oscillatory power change versus time for each of the frequency bands of interest (beta [B‐ERD], gamma [MRGS], and theta [FMT]).
Walshe E.A., Roberts T.P., Ward McIntosh C., Winston F.K., Romer D, & Gaetz W. (2023). An event‐based magnetoencephalography study of simulated driving: Establishing a novel paradigm to probe the dynamic interplay of executive and motor function. Human Brain Mapping, 44(5), 2109-2121.
Publication 2023
Cognition EPOCH protocol Foot Gamma Rays Hypersensitivity Light Motor Cortex Movement Pedestrians physiology Precipitating Factors
5
Assessing Corticospinal Excitability Changes
The secondary outcome measures will include the resting motor threshold (states the general excitability of the neuromotor axis in the target muscle), the MEP amplitude (expresses the trans-synaptic activation of corticospinal neurons) and latency (defines the time which is needed for signal transmission from the motor cortex to the recording electrode of the target muscle) [67 (link)], and all clinical assessments. We will quantify the resting motor threshold and the MEP amplitude and latency using a single pulse TMS and two independent physiotherapists will both perform all clinical assessments to each participant.
Sokratous D., Charalambous C.C., Papanicolaou E.Z., Michailidou K, & Konstantinou N. (2023). Investigation of in-phase bilateral exercise effects on corticospinal plasticity in relapsing remitting multiple sclerosis: A registered report single-case concurrent multiple baseline design across five subjects. PLOS ONE, 18(3), e0272114.
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Publication 2023
Epistropheus Motor Cortex Muscle Tissue Neurons Physical Therapist Pulse Rate Transmission, Communicable Disease

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More about "Motor Cortex"

The Motor Cortex: A Critical Brain Region for Voluntary Movement Control

The motor cortex, also known as the primary motor cortex or M1, is a crucial brain region responsible for the planning, control, and execution of voluntary movements.
Located in the frontal lobe of the cerebral cortex, this area is organized somatotopically, meaning different parts of the motor cortex control different body parts.
The motor cortex receives input from various sensory areas, such as the somatosensory cortex, and integrates this information to generate appropriate motor commands.
This integration process is essential for the initiation, modulation, and fine-tuning of movement.
The motor cortex plays a key role in the neural mechanisms underlying motor control and is implicated in various neurological disorders, including paralysis, tremors, and movement disorders.
Researchers studying the motor cortex often utilize advanced tools and techniques, such as MATLAB, Magstim Rapid2, Magstim 200 stimulator, stereotaxic frames, Rose Bengal, biotinylated dextran amine (BDA), Magstim Rapid2 stimulator, MagPro X100, and Alexa Fluor 488.
These tools and techniques enable researchers to investigate the structure, function, and connectivity of the motor cortex, as well as its role in motor control and the development of therapies for motor-related impairments.
By leveraging the insights gained from the motor cortex's MeSH term description and exploring the latest advancements in research tools and techniques, researchers can optimize their investigations and enhance the reproducibility and accuracy of their findings.
PubCompare.ai, an AI-driven platform, can be a valuable resource in this endeavor, helping researchers locate relevant protocols from literature, pre-prints, and patents, and enabling them to make informed decisions about the best protocols and products to use in their studies.