Ischium

Participants were positioned prone on an exam table with their hips and knees supported in neutral position and then asked to remain relaxed with no muscular contraction. In an effort to standardize imaging locations between participants, thigh length from the ischial tuberosity to the midpoint between the femoral condyles was measured and recorded. Skin marks were then made on the participant at 33%, 50%, and 67% of the thigh length from the ischial tuberosity, which corresponded to approximately proximal, mid-belly, and distal regions of the hamstring muscle, respectively. These locations were determined based upon pilot testing to ensure that images were collected at these different regions with minimal tendon infiltration, and are consistent with previous investigations [19 (link)–22 (link)].
All images were obtained using the same machine (Aixplorer, Supersonic Imaging, Weston, FL) and sonographer with over 18 years of US experience (5+ years in MSK US). A linear array transducer (2–10 MHz) was used with the following parameters: imaging depth of 5 cm, dual transmit foci depth of 2 and 3 cm (corresponding to approximately the center of the muscle [23 (link)]), and gain of 38%, as this was determined from preliminary image acquisitions to result in clear images without image saturation. All ultrasound settings were kept constant for all image acquisitions [6 (link),24 (link)].
Ultrasound gel was liberally applied at each imaging site. To ensure that the targeted HS muscle was imaged, a transverse view was first visualized after ensuring the ultrasound probe was placed at the appropriate location with respect to the ischial tuberosity. Longitudinal B-mode images were then captured for each hamstring muscle (biceps femoris long head, BFlh; semitendinosus, ST; semimembranosus, SM) at each of the three locations along both thighs. Biceps femoris short head (BFsh) was excluded from the analysis primarily because BFsh is deep to BFlh, thereby making imaging difficult [25 (link)]. After image acquisitions were completed at all locations from both limbs, the participant sat on the exam table for 60 seconds, before laying back down. The same imaging procedure was then repeated for each limb.

Firstly, we made a new complete inventory of the overall assemblage from the Farneto rock shelter housed in the three institutions. The bone fragments embedded inside sediments were not counted, because they are not completely distinguishable, with the exception of a calotte partially embedded and thus clearly visible (Fig. 2c). No bones were restored, in order to preserve the original state of fragmentation and study the characteristics of fracture margins. However, some skeletal remains, especially crania, had been restored during previous studies. Each restored element was counted as one in the inventory.
The inventory contains the following information: previous number of inventory, type of bone and side, state of preservation, maximum length, sex and age class, colour, eventual presence of burning and gnawing traces, possible perimortem lesions.
The state of preservation was recorded as follows: 1 complete, 2 almost complete, 3 diaphysis + proximal epiphysis, 4 diaphysis + distal epiphysis, 5 fragmented (5.1 fragment of cancellous bone, 5.2 fragment of cortical bone, 5.3 fragment of both cancellous and cortical bone; cf. Outram 2001 (link)), 6 unfused proximal epiphysis, 7 unfused distal epiphysis. Codes 1, 2 and 5 may refer to all skeletal districts, while codes 3, 4, 6 and 7 clearly refer to long bones.
The maximum length of each fragment was measured with a sliding calliper (sensitivity: 1 mm) to study the degree of fragmentation and the most attested length classes (Outram 2001 (link)).
The minimum number of elements (MNE) was calculated according to Knüsel and Outram (2006 ), additionally distinguishing atlas and axis from the rest of cervical vertebrae, ilium, ischium and pubis from os coxae, each carpal and metacarpal and each tarsal and metatarsal. Adult vs. subadult elements and left vs. right sides were treated separately. Thanks to that, the minimum number of individuals (MNI) was calculated. Then, element representation index (ERI) was calculated, dividing the observed number of each element by the number of elements expected assuming that each individual (considering the MNI) was represented by a complete skeleton (cf. Robb et al. 2015 (link)).
For the determination of sex, we referred to current morphological methods (Ferembach et al. 1980 (link); Loth and Henneberg 1996 (link)) and, where possible, we measured the diameter of the femoral head (Bass 2001 ).
For the estimation of adult age at death, we used occlusal dental wear methods (Brothwell 1981 ; Lovejoy 1985 (link)) and we looked at the persistence of the epiphyseal line in the appendicular skeleton (Belcastro et al. 2019 (link)). As regards subadults, we observed the formation and eruption of deciduous and permanent teeth (Mincer et al. 1993 (link); AlQahtani et al. 2010 (link)) and we measured the maximum length of the diaphysis without epiphyses (Schaefer et al. 2009 ). For adolescents, we observed the epiphyseal fusion degree (Schaefer et al. 2009 ). We then considered the following age classes (Buikstra and Ubelaker 1994 ): infant (IN, birth–3 years), child (CH, 4–12 years), adolescent (ADOL, 13–20 years), young adult (YA, 21–35 years), mature or middle adult (MA, 36–50 years), old adult (OA, > 50 years).
Taphonomic changes were recorded for each bone, even fragmented or incomplete. For the colour of bones, a standard was created on the basis of the nuances of the bones of the sample: 1.1 very light whitish, 1.2 very light reddish, 2 brown (cf. Dupras and Schultz 2013 ). The presence of burning traces, represented by colour changes, reduction, warping, cracking and fracturing, was assessed referring to the relevant literature (Shipman et al. 1984 (link); de Becqdelievre et al. 2015 (link)). Evidence of rodent and carnivore gnawing activity was recorded according to Pokines (2013 ) and Knüsel and Robb (2016 (link)). Rodent incisors leave on bone paired, broad, shallow and flat-bottomed grooves (Knüsel and Robb 2016 (link)). As regards carnivore tooth marks, the authors distinguish four types: tooth pits, punctures, scores and furrows. Tooth pits consist of circular to irregular-shaped depressions in the cortical bone, which do not penetrate the bone interior, while punctures (or perforations; Andrews and Fernández-Jalvo 2012 ) are deeper depressions that penetrate the interior of the bone (Pokines 2013 ).
Fracture patterns were studied to assess if fracturing was produced on fresh, dry (i.e. bone free of soft tissue, but maintaining a certain quantity of organic components) or mineralised bone. For long bones, the observed characteristics include fracture angle, surface texture and outline. In particular, a fresh bone fracture may present a notional 10% of the fracture surface perpendicular to the cortical one, its surface is smooth, while the fracture outline is mostly helical. Mineralised fractures present a straight outline and a largely rough surface, mostly perpendicular to the bone surface. Dry fractures display mixed features (Villa and Mahieu 1991 (link); Outram 2001 (link), 2002 ). For cranial fractures and other specific fracture patterns, we referred to the relevant literature (e.g. Wedel and Galloway 2014 ).
Finally, possible sharp force lesions (such as cut marks, chop marks and perforating lesions; Kimmerle and Baraybar 2008 ) were investigated macroscopically and under a stereomicroscope. We noted their type, position and characteristics to determine their timing (ante-, peri- or postmortem) and the action that may have caused them (White 1992 ; Olsen and Shipman 1994 ; Blumenschine et al. 1996 (link); White and Folkens 2005 ; Domínguez-Rodrigo et al. 2009 (link); Andrews and Fernández-Jalvo 2012 ; cf. Mariotti et al. 2020 (link)).
The particular karstic environment of the Farneto rock shelter, its use as a quarry and the mode of recovery of the bones could account for most of the fragmentation and bad preservation of the skeletal material, sometimes still included in sediments or covered by incrustations. For this reason, we did not calculate the frequency of lesions (gnawing traces, fractures, sharp force lesions) and the most affected skeletal districts. In addition, results regarding the type of fractures will be given only for those specimens presenting any kind of perimortem lesions.

Long-leg weight-bearing X-rays were obtained using a 1.3-m cassette (Global Imaging Baltimore, MD, USA) as described by Dror Paley. The patient had to stand in a bipedal stance in front of a long film cassette. The X-ray tube was positioned at a distance of 3.05 m. The magnification with this setup was 5%. A 25 mm steel ball was used for calibration. The X-ray beam was centered at the level of the knee joints.
It was ensured that the patellae were positioned in such a way that they were between both condyles, pointing forward.
Several radiographic measures were defined for the purpose of the study. The interischial distance is defined as the maximum horizontal distance between the lateral borders of both ischii on the AP view of the pelvis. Furthermore, the pubic-arc angle was measured. The ischiofemoral distance was measured as described in previous studies [15 (link)] (Figure 1). In brief, the distance measured between the femur and the ischium parallel to the horizontal pelvic orientation was measured based on two lines. The first line runs between the lateral cortex of the ischium and the most superior portion of the lesser trochanter; the second line runs parallel to the first between the ischium and the most medial point of the lesser trochanter (Figure 1). The centrum collum diaphyseal angle (CCD) and the lateral center edge angle (LCE) were also measured.