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Muscle Cells

Muscle Cells are specialized contractile cells that form the basic unit of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissues.
These cells play a crucial role in locomotion, respiration, and other vital bodily functions.
Muscle Cells contain myofibrils, which are responsible for their ability to contract and generate force.
They also possess unique structural and functional properties that allow for precise control and coordination of movement.
Researchers studying Muscle Cells may use techniques such as cell culture, gene expression analysis, and functional assays to understand their development, differentiation, and response to various stimuli.
Optimizing experimental protocols is key to achieving better results in Muscle Cell research, and tools like PubCompare.ai can help researchers effortlesly locate the best protocols from literature, preprints, and patents.

Most cited protocols related to «Muscle Cells»

1
Isolation of Murine Cardiac Myocytes
A schematic overview of the myocyte isolation procedure is shown in Figure 2. An expanded description of the procedure, accompanied with images and videos, and complete materials list is available in the Online Data Supplement, alongside full details of additional methods applied in this study (Appendix A-ix). All animal work was undertaken in accordance with Singapore National Advisory Committee for Laboratory Animal Research guidelines. Relevant national and institutional guidelines and regulations must be consulted before commencement of all animal work.
Buffers and media were prepared as detailed in Appendix D. EDTA, perfusion, and collagenase buffers were apportioned into sterile 10 mL syringes, and sterile 27 G hypodermic needles were attached (Online Figure IA).
C57/BL6J mice aged 8 to 12 weeks were anesthetized, and the chest was opened to expose the heart. Descending aorta was cut, and the heart was immediately flushed by injection of 7 mL EDTA buffer into the right ventricle. Ascending aorta was clamped using Reynolds forceps, and the heart was transferred to a 60-mm dish containing fresh EDTA buffer. Digestion was achieved by sequential injection of 10 mL EDTA buffer, 3 mL perfusion buffer, and 30 to 50 mL collagenase buffer into the left ventricle (LV). Constituent chambers (atria, LV, and right ventricle) were then separated and gently pulled into 1-mm pieces using forceps. Cellular dissociation was completed by gentle trituration, and enzyme activity was inhibited by addition of 5 mL stop buffer.
Cell suspension was passed through a 100-μm filter, and cells underwent 4 sequential rounds of gravity settling, using 3 intermediate calcium reintroduction buffers to gradually restore calcium concentration to physiological levels. The cell pellet in each round was enriched with myocytes and ultimately formed a highly pure myocyte fraction, whereas the supernatant from each round was combined to produce a fraction containing nonmyocyte cardiac populations.
CM yields and percentage of viable rod-shaped cells were quantified using a hemocytometer. Where required, the CMs were resuspended in prewarmed plating media and plated at an applicationdependent density, onto laminin (5 μg/mL) precoated tissue culture plastic or glass coverslips, in a humidified tissue culture incubator (37°C, 5% CO2). After 1 hour, and every 48 hours thereafter, media was changed to fresh, prewarmed culture media.
The cardiac nonmyocyte fraction was collected by centrifugation (300g, 5 minutes), resuspended in fibroblast growth media, and plated on tissue-culture treated plastic, area ≈ 23 cm2 (0.5× 12-well plate) per LV, in a humidified tissue culture incubator. Media was changed after 24 hours and every 48 hours thereafter.
Ackers-Johnson M., Li P.Y., Holmes A.P., O’Brien S.M., Pavlovic D, & Foo R.S. (2016). A Simplified, Langendorff-Free Method for Concomitant Isolation of Viable Cardiac Myocytes and Nonmyocytes From the Adult Mouse Heart. Circulation research, 119(8), 909-920.
Publication 2016
Animals Animals, Laboratory Ascending Aorta Buffers Calcium Centrifugation Chest Collagenase Culture Media Descending Aorta Dietary Supplements Digestion Edetic Acid enzyme activity Fibroblasts Forceps Gravity Heart Heart Atrium Hyperostosis, Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Hypodermic Needles isolation Laminin Left Ventricles Mus Muscle Cells Perfusion physiology Population Group Retreatments Rod Photoreceptors Sterility, Reproductive Syringes Tissues Ventricles, Right
2
Culturing Adult Cardiomyocytes for Prolonged Experiments

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Publication 2011
Adult Contracture Digestion Enzymes isolation Muscle Cells Muscle Contraction Myocytes, Cardiac Physical Examination Primary Cell Culture Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Stimulations, Electric Therapies, Investigational Trypan Blue
3
Human Ventricular Myocyte Modeling

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Publication 2009
Calcium Heart Ventricle Homo sapiens Ion Channel Ions Kinetics Membrane Potentials Muscle Cells Plasma Membrane Protoplasm Rabbits Sarcoplasmic Reticulum Seizures SLC8A1 protein, human Sodium Tissue, Membrane
4
Atrial Fibrillation Myocyte Modeling
Cellular [Ca2+]i and electrophysiological methods are described in the Online Supplement and were used to tune our model and for validation. Table 1 shows key changes made in our new human atrial model vs. our ventricular myocyte model, 12 (link) to account for ionic remodeling in cAF, and to simulate the effects of β-adrenergic and cholinergic stimulation. Further details are in Online Supplement, including formulation of IKur block by AVE0118.
Model differential equations were implemented in Matlab (Mathworks Inc., Natick, MA, USA) and solved numerically using a variable order solver (ode15s). APDs were obtained after pacing digital cells at indicated frequencies at steady-state. APD was measured as the interval between AP upstroke and 90% repolarization level (APD90).
Grandi E., Pandit S.V., Voigt N., Workman A.J., Dobrev D., Jalife J, & Bers D.M. (2011). Human Atrial Action Potential and Ca2+ Model: Sinus Rhythm and Chronic Atrial Fibrillation. Circulation research, 109(9), 1055-1066.
Publication 2011
Adrenergic Effect AVE 0118 Cells Cholinergic Agents Dietary Supplements Electric Stimulation Therapy Heart Atrium Heart Ventricle Homo sapiens Ions Muscle Cells
5
Computational Modeling of Canine Ventricular Fiber Orientation
The LDRB algorithm was tested in a MRI-based computational model of the structurally normal canine ventricles. The geometry and DTI-derived fiber orientation of the model were constructed using the methods of Vadakkumpadan et al.34 (link) applied to MRI and DTI data collected by Helm et al.16 (link) To generate the same model but with LDRB fiber orientation, the input functions in Eqs. (1)–(4) were optimized so that the mean angle between the LDRB and DTI-derived fiber orientations was minimal. The optimal values for the input parameters αendo, αepi, βendo and βepi of the LDRB algorithm were determined by varying each parameter in the range of ±90° in intervals of 5°, then choosing the parameter combination that produced the smallest mean angle (θmean) between the LDRB and DTI vectors (F  S  T) calculated over the total number of elements in Ω(Nelem). Since fiber orientation is bi-directional, θmean was calculated as
θmean(x→i)=1Nelem∗∑i=0Nelemcos−1(|x→iLDRB·x→iDTI‖x→iLDRB‖‖x→iDTI‖|),
x→=[F,S,T]
Membrane kinetics in this model of the canine ventricles were described by the Greenstein–Winslow myocyte model.12 (link) Orthotropic tissue conductivities of 0.5 (S/m) along F, 0.3 (S/m) along T, and 0.16 (S/m) along S were assigned to produce conduction velocities within the range of 20–80 cm/s as observed in experiments.8 (link) Monodomain simulations were performed with the model of the canine ventricles using the Cardiac Arrhythmia Research Package37 (link) (CardioSolv LLC) running on 16 compute nodes, each with four Dual Core AMD Opteron processors (Model 2222) and 8GB of memory. All simulations were executed with a 10 µs time step.
Bayer J.D., Blake R.C., Plank G, & Trayanova N.A. (2012). A Novel Rule-Based Algorithm for Assigning Myocardial Fiber Orientation to Computational Heart Models. Annals of biomedical engineering, 40(10), 2243-2254.
Publication 2012
Canis familiaris Cardiac Conduction System Disease Cloning Vectors Electric Conductivity Fibrosis Heart Ventricle Kinetics Memory Muscle Cells Tissue, Membrane Tissues

Most recents protocols related to «Muscle Cells»

1
Muscle mononuclear cell scRNA-seq analysis
scRNA-seq data were processed using the Partek Genomics Suite (Partek, USA) as previously described [28 (link)]. Briefly, following data quality control, samples were aligned to the rn6 genome and low-quality cells and/or reads were excluded based on the following criteria: mitochondrial reads exceeding 20%, an indication of doublets via read counts/cell, lowly expressed genes in only 0.01% of total cells, and high expression of myofiber-related RNA resulting from muscle mincing. Following dimensionality reduction, graph-based clustering was used in combination with known muscle mononuclear cell-related gene markers for population annotation [11 (link), 28 (link), 38 (link)].
Ismaeel A., Van Pelt D.W., Hettinger Z.R., Fu X., Richards C.I., Butterfield T.A., Petrocelli J.J., Vechetti I.J., Confides A.L., Drummond M.J, & Dupont-Versteegden E.E. (2023). Extracellular vesicle distribution and localization in skeletal muscle at rest and following disuse atrophy. Skeletal Muscle, 13, 6.
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Publication 2023
Cells Genes Genetic Markers Genome Mitochondrial Inheritance Muscle Cells Muscle Tissue Single-Cell RNA-Seq Transcription, Genetic
2
Genome Sequencing of the Asian Vine Snake
To generate a reference genome sequence of the Asian vine snake, muscle tissue from a male green snake (ID: CIB119038) from Xishuangbanna, Yunnan Province, China, was collected. High molecular weight genomic DNA was prepared using the CTAB method, followed by purification using a QIAGEN® Genomic kit (QIAGEN, Valencia, CA, USA) for sequencing according to the standard procedures provided by the manufacturer.
For genome sequencing, DNA was extracted using the SDS method. DNA degradation and extracted DNA contamination were monitored using 1% agarose gels. DNA purity was then detected using a NanoDrop™ One UV-Vis Spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA), with OD 260/280 ranging from 1.8 to 2.0 and OD 260/230 ranging from 2.0 to 2.2. Lastly, the DNA concentration was further measured using a Qubit® 4.0 Fluorometer (Invitrogen, USA). In total, 3–4 μg of DNA per sample was used as input material for the ONT library preparations. After the sample was qualified, size selection of long DNA fragments was performed using the PippinHT system (Sage Science, USA). The DNA fragments ends were then repaired, and A-ligation reaction was conducted using a NEBNext Ultra II End Repair/dA-tailing Kit (Cat# E7546). The adapter in SQK-LSK109 (Oxford Nanopore Technologies, UK) was used for further ligation reactions and the DNA library was measured using a Qubit® 4.0 Fluorometer (Invitrogen, USA). A DNA library (700 ng) was constructed and long-read sequencing was performed on a Nanopore PromethION sequencer (Oxford Nanopore Technologies, UK).
For short-read sequencing, a paired-end library was conducted with an insert size of 300 bp and 100 bp paired-end reads, then sequenced using the MGISEQ-2000 platform following the manufacturer’s standard protocols.
For Hi-C sequencing, muscle cells from the Asian vine snake were fixed with formaldehyde, followed by restriction enzyme digestion. Nuclei were extracted by lysing the cross-linked tissue. The cohesive ends were filled in by adding biotinylated nucleotides, and the free blunt ends were ligated. The cross-linking was reversed, and DNA was purified to remove proteins. The purified DNA was then sheared to a length of ∼400 bp and point ligation junctions were pulled down. The Hi-C libraries were sequenced using the Illumina HiSeq platform with PE150 short reads.
Tang C.Y., Zhang X., Xu X., Sun S., Peng C., Song M.H., Yan C., Sun H., Liu M., Xie L., Luo S.J, & Li J.T. (2023). Genetic mapping and molecular mechanism behind color variation in the Asian vine snake. Genome Biology, 24, 46.
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Publication 2023
Asian Persons BP 400 Cell Nucleus Cetrimonium Bromide Digestion DNA, A-Form DNA Contamination DNA Library DNA Restriction Enzymes Formaldehyde Gels Genome Ligation Males Muscle Cells Muscle Tissue Nucleotides Proteins Sepharose Snakes Tissues
3
Intestinal Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury Immunohistochemistry
Full thickness intestinal samples were taken at the end of the pre-ischemia period (pre-ischemia sample, P), at the end of ischemia (ischemia sample, I), and at the end of reperfusion (reperfusion sample, R). At reperfusion point, an additional sample was taken just proximal to the post-ischemic intestinal segment (proximal sample, PR). One segment of each sample was fixed in a 4% formaldehyde solution for 24–36 h and subsequently embedded in paraffin.
Immunohistochemical staining was performed for HIF1α and HIF2α. In short, the slides were deparaffinized and subsequently the antigen retrieval was done using citrate buffer with a pH of 6.0 at 95°C for 20 min, followed by blocking for unspecific binding with 20 % goat serum. The slides were incubated overnight with 1:500 polyclonal rabbit antibody against HIF1α (HIF-1 alpha Antibody NB100-134 1.0 mg/ml, Novus Biologicals LLC, Centennial, USA) or 1:100 monoclonal mouse antibody against HIF2α (Anti-Hypoxia Inducible Factor 2 α Antibody clone 190b, Sigma Aldrich, Darmstadt, Germany). Subsequently, the slides were incubated with secondary antibody (1:200 goat-anti-rabbit or 1:200 goat-anti-mouse, respectively), followed by incubation with the ABC reagent (Vectastain ABC, Biozol diagnostics Vertrieb GmbH, Eching, Germany). As negative isotype control, the control slides were incubated with rabbit IgG (IgG from rabbit serum I5006, Sigma Aldrich) for HIF1α and with mouse IgG1 (Clone MOPC-21, BioLegend, San Diego, USA) for HIF2α instead of the primary antibody. Equine kidney tissue and equine squamous cell carcinoma tissue was used as a positive control. The slides were incubated with 3,3′-diaminobenzidine and counterstained with modified hematoxylin (Delafield Hemalaun).
All slides were scanned to a digital format using a microscopic scanner at 20× magnification (Axio Scan.Z1, Carl Zeiss GmbH, Oberkochen, Germany), and subsequently evaluated using the accompanying software (Zen Blue 3.0, Carl Zeiss GmbH). In addition to the descriptive evaluation, a semi-quantitative score was developed for comparison between the groups and time-points. The enterocytes in the crypts and the villi were separately graded for staining intensity of both the cytoplasm and the nucleus with the following score for immunoreactivity: grade 0–no staining; 1–weak staining (staining hardly visible); 2–mild staining (light brown); 3–moderate staining (medium brown); 4–intense staining (dark brown; Supplementary file 1). To quantify the difference between the cytoplasmic and nuclear staining within one slide, the nucleus/cytoplasm ratio was calculated. The same score was used for the myocytes of the tunica muscularis. Microscopic photographs were used as color reference, and the evaluation was performed at fixed color settings by one observer, who was blinded for the identity of the slides. Because many sections showed a varying amount of focal cytoplasmic staining close to the nucleus, a separate score was added to quantify the proportion of cells with this perinuclear staining: grade 0–<1%; 1–1 to 25%; 2–26 to 50%; 3–51 to 75%; 4–76 to 100%.
Verhaar N., de Buhr N., von Köckritz-Blickwede M., Dümmer K., Hewicker-Trautwein M., Pfarrer C., Dengler F, & Kästner S. (2023). Hypoxia signaling in the equine small intestine: Expression and distribution of hypoxia inducible factors during experimental ischemia. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1110019.
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Publication 2023
Antibodies, Anti-Idiotypic Antigens Biological Factors Bladder Detrusor Muscle Buffers Cell Nucleus CFC1 protein, human Citrates Clone Cells Cytoplasm Debility Diagnosis endothelial PAS domain-containing protein 1 Enterocytes Equus caballus Formalin Goat Hematoxylin HIF1A protein, human IgG1 Immunoglobulin Isotypes Immunoglobulins Intestines Ischemia Kidney Light Microscopy Monoclonal Antibodies Mus Muscle Cells Novus Paraffin Embedding Rabbits Radionuclide Imaging Reperfusion Serum Squamous Cell Carcinoma Tissues
4
Patch-clamp analysis of cardiac myocyte APs
Isolated myocytes were studied in Petri dishes on the stage of an inverted microscope (Nikon TE200-S, Japan). AP were recorded at room temperature using the whole cell configuration of the patch-clamp technique in its current-clamp mode. For data acquisition, an Axopatch 200B (Molecular Devices, United State) amplifier connected to a Digidata 1322 A/D (Molecular Devices, United State) were used. Data were recorded and analyzed using pClamp software 9 (Molecular Devices, United State). Signals were digitized at a frequency of 10 KHz and filtered at 2 KHz using a 8-pole Bessel low pass filter. Patch pipettes resistance was usually comprised between 1.2 and 2.5 MΩ when filled with the intrapipette solution described below.
AP were elicited by 1 ms supra-threshold current steps at a frequency of 0.1 Hz. Bath solution was composed by (in mmol/L): 130 NaCl, 5.4 KCl, 1.4 MgCl2, 0.4 NaH2PO4, 4.2 HEPES, 10 Glucose, 20 Taurine, 10 Creatine, 1 CaCl2; pH 7.4 with NaOH. Pipette solution was composed by (in mmol/L): 10 NaCl, 130 K-Glutamate, 9 KCl, 5 ATPMg, 0.5 MgCl2, 10 HEPES, 0.4 GTP-Tris, 0.5 EGTA, 0.12 CaCl2; pH 7.2 with KOH.
AP amplitude was measured as the difference between the peak of overshoot and the resting membrane potential. The maximum rate of rise of the AP (dV/dtmax) was calculated by differentiation of the AP upstroke using Clampfit software. Action potential duration (APD) was measured as the duration from the trigger of AP to 20%, 50% and 90% of repolarization (APD20, APD50 and APD90, respectively).
AP parameters under 8-CPT-AM superfusion (10 μmol/L) have been assessed at the steady state effect of the compound (∼5 min). To evaluate the EPAC1 selective inhibition by AM-001, cells were first treated by 8-CPT-AM (10 μmol/L) alone, then co-treated for at least 15 min by superfusion of both 8-CPT-AM (10 μmol/L) and AM-001 (20 μmol/L). The impact of the co-treatment has been evaluated at the steady state of the effect after this time lapse.
Guillot B., Boileve A., Walton R., Harfoush A., Conte C., Sainte-Marie Y., Charron S., Bernus O., Recalde A., Sallé L., Brette F, & Lezoualc’h F. (2023). Inhibition of EPAC1 signaling pathway alters atrial electrophysiology and prevents atrial fibrillation. Frontiers in Physiology, 14, 1120336.
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Publication 2023
Action Potentials Bath Cells Creatine Egtazic Acid Glucose Glutamate HEPES Hyperostosis, Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Magnesium Chloride Medical Devices Membrane Potentials Microscopy Muscle Cells Precipitating Factors Psychological Inhibition Sodium Chloride Taurine Tromethamine
5
Isolation of Atrial Myocytes from Mice
Atrial Myocytes were dissociated as previously described (Jansen and Rose, 2019 (link)). Briefly, mice were anesthetized by inhalation of isoflurane (2% in air) then heparinized by intraperitoneal injection of Heparin (200 UI). Mice anesthesia was checked by absence of the paw withdrawal reflex. Mice were subsequently killed by cervical dislocation and atrial appendages were rapidly excised. After the excision, all digestion steps were realized at 37°C. Atria were quickly washed and minced in modified Tyrode solution (in mmol/L: 140 NaCl, 5.4 KCl, 1.2 KH2PO4, 5 HEPES, 5.55 Glucose, 1 MgCl2, 1.8 CaCl2, 5 U/mL Heparin; pH 7.4 with NaOH) and transferred in a pre-digestion buffer solution (in mmol/L: 140 NaCl, 5.4 KCl, 1.2 KH2PO4, 5 HEPES, 18.5 Glucose, 50 Taurine, 0.066 CaCl2, 1 mg/mL Bovine Serum Albumin; pH 6.9 with NaOH). After 5 min of pre-digestion, tissues were transferred in a digestion solution corresponding to the pre-digestion buffer supplemented by 0.11 mg/mL (equivalent to 0.34 Wünsch unit/mL and 36.7 units/mL Dispase) of Liberase (Medium Thermolysine, Roche, France). The digestion step lasted 20–23 min. After digestion was completed, atrial stripes were washed in a modified Kraft-Brühe solution (in mmol/L: 100 K-Glutamate, 10 K-Aspartate, 25 KCl, 10 KH2PO4, 2 MgSO4, 20 Taurine, 5 Creatine, 0.5 EGTA, 20 Glucose, 5 HEPES, 0,1% Bovine Serum Albumin; pH 7.2 with KOH), and mechanically triturated in this solution to allow cell isolation. Once the dissociation ended, cells were gradually reintroduced to 1 mmol/L calcium concentration by addition of calcium in the Kraft-Brühe solution (in mmol/L of free calcium: 0.125, 0.25, 0.375, 0.5, 0.625, 0.75, 0.875, and 1). Cells were used for patch clamp experiments during the 8 h following the dissociation. Only rod shaped and striated cells were used for experiments.
Guillot B., Boileve A., Walton R., Harfoush A., Conte C., Sainte-Marie Y., Charron S., Bernus O., Recalde A., Sallé L., Brette F, & Lezoualc’h F. (2023). Inhibition of EPAC1 signaling pathway alters atrial electrophysiology and prevents atrial fibrillation. Frontiers in Physiology, 14, 1120336.
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Publication 2023
Anesthesia Aspartate Auricular Appendage Buffers Calcium Cells Cell Separation Creatine Digestion dispase Egtazic Acid Glucose Glutamate Heart Atrium Heparin HEPES Inhalation Injections, Intraperitoneal Isoflurane Joint Dislocations Liberase Magnesium Chloride Mus Muscle Cells Neck Reflex Serum Albumin, Bovine Sodium Chloride Sulfate, Magnesium Taurine Tissues Tyrode's solution

Top products related to «Muscle Cells»

1
Fetal bovine serum (fbs) by Thermo Fisher Scientific
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Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) is a cell culture supplement derived from the blood of bovine fetuses. FBS provides a source of proteins, growth factors, and other components that support the growth and maintenance of various cell types in in vitro cell culture applications.
2
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Collagenase type II is an enzyme used in cell and tissue culture applications. It is responsible for the breakdown of collagen, a structural protein found in the extracellular matrix. This enzyme is commonly used to facilitate the dissociation of cells from tissues during cell isolation and harvesting procedures.
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DMEM (Dulbecco's Modified Eagle's Medium) is a cell culture medium formulated to support the growth and maintenance of a variety of cell types, including mammalian cells. It provides essential nutrients, amino acids, vitamins, and other components necessary for cell proliferation and survival in an in vitro environment.
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Penicillin/streptomycin is a commonly used antibiotic solution for cell culture applications. It contains a combination of penicillin and streptomycin, which are broad-spectrum antibiotics that inhibit the growth of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.
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L-glutamine is an amino acid that is commonly used as a dietary supplement and in cell culture media. It serves as a source of nitrogen and supports cellular growth and metabolism.
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Streptomycin is a broad-spectrum antibiotic used in laboratory settings. It functions as a protein synthesis inhibitor, targeting the 30S subunit of bacterial ribosomes, which plays a crucial role in the translation of genetic information into proteins. Streptomycin is commonly used in microbiological research and applications that require selective inhibition of bacterial growth.

More about "Muscle Cells"

Muscle cells, also known as myocytes, are the fundamental building blocks of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle tissues.
These highly specialized, contractile cells play a crucial role in various bodily functions, including locomotion, respiration, and cardiovascular activity.
Myocytes contain myofibrils, which are responsible for their ability to contract and generate force.
These cells possess unique structural and functional properties that enable precise control and coordination of movement.
Researchers studying muscle cells may employ techniques such as cell culture, gene expression analysis, and functional assays to understand their development, differentiation, and response to various stimuli.
Optimizing experimental protocols is key to achieving better results in muscle cell research.
Tools like PubCompare.ai can help researchers effortlessly locate the best protocols from literature, preprints, and patents.
This AI-driven protocol comparison platform allows scientists to discover and implement the most effective techniques for their muscle cell studies.
In muscle cell research, researchers may utilize a variety of specialized materials and reagents, such as fetal bovine serum (FBS), collagenase type II, Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), Fluo-4 AM, penicillin/streptomycin, protease type XIV, L-glutamine, Lipofectamine 2000, Fura-2 AM, and streptomycin.
These components play crucial roles in cell culture, staining, transfection, and other experimental protocols, contributing to the optimization and success of muscle cell research.