Log In Sign up
The largest database of trusted experimental protocols
> Anatomy > Cell > Neurons, Efferent

Neurons, Efferent

Neurons, Efferent are a type of nerve cell that transmit signals from the central nervous system to effector organs, such as muscles or glands.
These neurons play a crucial role in coordinating the body's voluntary and involuntary responses.
They recieve input from interneurons or sensory neurons and, in turn, trigger action potentials that elicit a response in the target tissue.
Efferent neurons can be classified into two main categories: motor neurons, which innervate skeletal muscles, and autonomic neurons, which control the function of internal organs.
Understanding the structure and function of these neurons is essential for researchers studying motor control, neuropathology, and the regulation of physiological processes.

Most cited protocols related to «Neurons, Efferent»

1
Intracellular Recordings of Motoneurons
AC-coupled recordings were made of the cord dorsum potentials for incoming afferent volleys and the electroneurograms (ENGs: the phrenic nerve; the external intercostal nerve in one cat; when appropriate, see below, the dissected hindlimb nerves as listed above). Intracellular recordings were DC-coupled, but a high gain output channel high pass filtered at 1 Hz was also included. Intracellular recordings were made from antidromically identified motoneurons, using an Axoclamp 2B amplifier (Axon Instruments) in either standard bridge mode, or in discontinuous current clamp (DCC) mode. Microelectrodes (typical impedance 5 MΩ) were filled with 2 M potassium acetate, and contained the local anesthetic derivative QX-314 (50 mm) to block actions potentials, so as to facilitate the study of the size of EPSPs at different membrane potentials. Note that in several of the records illustrated, a few action potentials survived, showing the QX-314 block to be incomplete at those times. DCC mode was used to allow for more accurate measurements of membrane potential despite changes in electrode resistance with injected current. The DCC cycling rate was typically around 3 kHz with optimal capacitance compensation. Most often slow depolarizing and hyperpolarizing ramps of currents were used (triangular current ramps), but some step changes of constant current levels were also employed. During many of the motoneuron recordings we also recorded efferent discharges from the hindlimb nerves via the same electrodes as used for antidromic identification purposes. This was rarely done in the early experiments, where the focus was on the voltage-dependent amplification of synaptic potentials, but once it was realized that a locomotor drive was sometimes present in the recordings, then these electrodes were switched to their recording mode as soon as antidromic identification had been confirmed. The ENG recordings were done with custom built amplifiers and analog filtering (1–10 kHz) and digitized at a rate of 10 kHz. Full wave rectification and additional filtering was done during analysis so that the onset and the offset of ENG bursts in each nerve were identified by visual inspection of ENG levels crossing a baseline defined by no activity periods. These onset and offset points were used during cycle-based averaging of ENG activity. The data were collected and analyzed with a Canadian software-based QNX-system, developed by the Winnipeg Spinal Cord Research Center to run under a real-time Unix personal computer, usually using separate runs of 200 s duration.
Wienecke J., Enríquez Denton M., Stecina K., Kirkwood P.A, & Hultborn H. (2015). Modulation of spontaneous locomotor and respiratory drives to hindlimb motoneurons temporally related to sympathetic drives as revealed by Mayer waves. Frontiers in Neural Circuits, 9, 1.
Publication 2015
Action Potentials Axon Cardiac Arrest Cone-Rod Dystrophy 2 Excitatory Postsynaptic Potentials Hindlimb Intercostal Nerve Local Anesthesia Membrane Potentials Microelectrodes Motor Neurons Nervousness Neurons, Efferent Phrenic Nerve Potassium Acetate Protoplasm QX-314 Spinal Cord Synaptic Potentials
2
Intracellular Recording of Quadriceps Motor Neurons
Electrophysiological analysis was performed as previously described [48 (link)]. Briefly, intracellular recordings from identified quadriceps motor neurons were made using sharp electrodes (75–120 MΩ, 3M KCl). Average responses (10–20 trials) from suprathreshold nerve stimulation (1.5 times the strength that evokes maximal monosynaptic response) of the quadriceps nerve were acquired with LTP software [49 (link)]. Only cells with stable resting potentials more negative than −50 mV were considered for analysis. Monosynaptic amplitudes were determined offline using custom routines in the Matlab environment (The Mathworks, Natick, Massachusetts, United States) as previously described [48 (link)].
Hippenmeyer S., Vrieseling E., Sigrist M., Portmann T., Laengle C., Ladle D.R, & Arber S. (2005). A Developmental Switch in the Response of DRG Neurons to ETS Transcription Factor Signaling. PLoS Biology, 3(5), e159.
Publication 2005
Membrane Potentials Nervousness Neurons, Efferent Protoplasm Quadriceps Femoris
3
Imaging Transgenic Presynaptic NMJ Boutons
To allow imaging access to transgenic presynaptic neuromuscular junction (NMJ) boutons which expressed variants of GCAMP3, third instar Drosophila larvae were dissected using methods similar to those described previously (1976). Genetic constructs were prepared in the pJFRC7-20XUAS-IVS vector (Pfeiffer et al., 2010 (link)) and inserted in the VK00005 site (Bellen et al., 2006 (link)) to allow expression in motor neurons using the OK6-Gal4 driver (Goodman et al., 2002 (link)). The combination of OK6-Gal4, VK00005 and pJFRC7-20XUAS-IVS provided good labeling of Type 1b and 1s, but not Type II boutons in heterozygous animals (+/yellow1white1118; +/OK6-Gal4; +/UAS-GCaMPxx). Actively wandering larvae were dissected in ice-cold Schneider’s insect medium (Sigma) pH shifted to 7.2 using NaOH. A 35 mm Petri dish previously 1/3 filled with Sylgard (Dow Corning, USA), was used to pin down the cuticle and body wall muscles. Utmost care was taken in the dissection to reduce the potential for muscle movement during imaging (ensuring central longitudinal muscles were not contacted with instruments at any time, cuticle stretching was sufficient to keep the preparation in place but not so much to cause spontaneous calcium release, choosing pin insertion locations that minimized potential damage to imaging region). Imaging commenced within 15 minutes of the segmental nerves being cut close to the ventral nerve cord (VNC). Before imaging, the Schneider’s insect medium was replaced with HL6 (Macleod et al., 2002 (link)) supplemented with 2 mM Ca2+, an osmolarity of ~340±10 mOsm, pH of ~7.2±0.05, and 7 mM L-glutamic acid added to reduce muscle movement (Macleod et al., 2004 (link)). During imaging, pH and temperature were monitored, with pH values ranging from ~7.4–7.6 (start to end) while temperature stayed relatively constant (~22±0.5°C).
Akerboom J., Chen T.W., Wardill T.J., Tian L., Marvin J.S., Mutlu S., Calderón N.C., Esposti F., Borghuis B.G., Sun X.R., Gordus A., Orger M.B., Portugues R., Engert F., Macklin J.J., Filosa A., Aggarwal A., Kerr R.A., Takagi R., Kracun S., Shigetomi E., Khakh B.S., Baier H., Lagnado L., Wang S.S., Bargmann C.I., Kimmel B.E., Jayaraman V., Svoboda K., Kim D.S., Schreiter E.R, & Looger L.L. (2012). Optimization of a GCaMP Calcium Indicator for Neural Activity Imaging. The Journal of Neuroscience, 32(40), 13819-13840.
Publication 2012
Animals Animals, Transgenic Calcium Cloning Vectors Cold Temperature Cone-Rod Dystrophy 2 Dissection Drosophila Glutamic Acid Heterozygote Human Body Hyperostosis, Diffuse Idiopathic Skeletal Insecta Larva Movement Muscle Tissue Nervousness Neuromuscular Junction Neurons, Efferent Osmolarity Presynaptic Terminals Reproduction
4
Spinal Cord Regeneration via Peripheral Nerve Graft
Sprague Dawley female rats (240-300 g) received a C2 hemisection and at the same time received either saline or ChABC at the level of the phrenic nucleus, ipsilateral to the lesion. In animals where a pre-degenerated autologous peripheral tibial nerve bridge was applied, ChABC was administered at the C2 lesion site where the proximal end of the graft was inserted to enhance axonal entry. One week later, the SC was re-exposed and the distal end of the graft was inserted into a pocket at C4 along with ChABC injection.
For the electromyographic recordings, two bipolar electrodes connected to amplifiers and a data acquisition system, were inserted into the left and right hemidiaphragms. For phrenic neurogram recordings, animals were vagotomized, ventilated, and the femoral blood vessels cannulated to monitor blood pressure and administer drugs. The left phrenic nerve, ipsilateral to the lesion, was isolated, transected desheathed, placed on bipolar silver electrodes, covered with mineral oil, and activity recorded under standardized conditions. Preparation of the animal to record from the graft itself was similar to the above procedures but the spinal cord was re-exposed and the graft isolated. From there, the freed graft was placed on the electrodes and activity recorded.
In the immunocytochemistry experiments, animals were perfused with phosphate buffered saline and 4% paraformaldehyde. The medulla and SC was harvested and sectioned on a cryostat at 20 μm thickness, and then processed for detection of the relevant molecules/proteins. For anatomical tracing studies, biotinylated dextran amine and/or dextran Texas red was injected into: 1) the diaphragm to retrogradely label phrenic motor neurons; 2) into the graft to retrogradely label the population of regenerating medullary cells; or 3) into the medulla to label regenerated axons in the graft and back into the SC.
Alilain W.J., Horn K.P., Hu H., Dick T.E, & Silver J. (2011). Functional regeneration of respiratory pathways after spinal cord injury. Nature, 475(7355), 196-200.
Publication 2011
Animals Axon biotinylated dextran amine Blood Pressure Blood Vessel Dextran Females Femur Grafts Immunocytochemistry Medulla Oblongata Neurons, Efferent Oil, Mineral paraform Pharmaceutical Preparations Phosphates Phrenic Nerve Phrenic Nucleus Proteins Rats, Sprague-Dawley Saline Solution Silver Spinal Cord Tibial Nerve Vaginal Diaphragm
5
Spinal Cord Regeneration via Peripheral Nerve Graft
Sprague Dawley female rats (240-300 g) received a C2 hemisection and at the same time received either saline or ChABC at the level of the phrenic nucleus, ipsilateral to the lesion. In animals where a pre-degenerated autologous peripheral tibial nerve bridge was applied, ChABC was administered at the C2 lesion site where the proximal end of the graft was inserted to enhance axonal entry. One week later, the SC was re-exposed and the distal end of the graft was inserted into a pocket at C4 along with ChABC injection.
For the electromyographic recordings, two bipolar electrodes connected to amplifiers and a data acquisition system, were inserted into the left and right hemidiaphragms. For phrenic neurogram recordings, animals were vagotomized, ventilated, and the femoral blood vessels cannulated to monitor blood pressure and administer drugs. The left phrenic nerve, ipsilateral to the lesion, was isolated, transected desheathed, placed on bipolar silver electrodes, covered with mineral oil, and activity recorded under standardized conditions. Preparation of the animal to record from the graft itself was similar to the above procedures but the spinal cord was re-exposed and the graft isolated. From there, the freed graft was placed on the electrodes and activity recorded.
In the immunocytochemistry experiments, animals were perfused with phosphate buffered saline and 4% paraformaldehyde. The medulla and SC was harvested and sectioned on a cryostat at 20 μm thickness, and then processed for detection of the relevant molecules/proteins. For anatomical tracing studies, biotinylated dextran amine and/or dextran Texas red was injected into: 1) the diaphragm to retrogradely label phrenic motor neurons; 2) into the graft to retrogradely label the population of regenerating medullary cells; or 3) into the medulla to label regenerated axons in the graft and back into the SC.
Alilain W.J., Horn K.P., Hu H., Dick T.E, & Silver J. (2011). Functional regeneration of respiratory pathways after spinal cord injury. Nature, 475(7355), 196-200.
Publication 2011
Animals Axon biotinylated dextran amine Blood Pressure Blood Vessel Dextran Females Femur Grafts Immunocytochemistry Medulla Oblongata Neurons, Efferent Oil, Mineral paraform Pharmaceutical Preparations Phosphates Phrenic Nerve Phrenic Nucleus Proteins Rats, Sprague-Dawley Saline Solution Silver Spinal Cord Tibial Nerve Vaginal Diaphragm

Most recents protocols related to «Neurons, Efferent»

1
Mapping Synaptic Bouton Coverage on Motoneurons
Analyzing synaptic bouton coverage on spinal motoneurons referred to the previous report [32 (link)]. Briefly, in immunostained sections, images were captured under a × 63 oil objective using confocal microscope (Zeiss 700, Germany). The ImageJ (NIH) was used to trace the perimeter of each motoneuron and to measure vGlut1- and VGAT-immunoreactive signal, and a plot of perimeter luminance versus location on the perimeter was made accordingly. The luminance peaks 10% above the average luminance of the perimeter were identified as vGlut1- and VGAT-positive terminals. Feret’s diameters of all terminals were calculated, and the ratio of the diameter sum to the motoneuron perimeter was presented as the linear density of bouton coverage.
Yu L., Liu M., Li F., Wang Q., Wang M., So K.F., Qu Y, & Zhou L. (2023). Celsr2 Knockout Alleviates Inhibitory Synaptic Stripping and Benefits Motoneuron Survival and Axon Regeneration After Branchial Plexus Avulsion. Molecular Neurobiology, 60(4), 1884-1900.
Publication 2023
Microscopy, Confocal Motor Neurons Neurons, Efferent Perimetry
2
Ultrastructural Analysis of Spinal Cord and Nerves
Musculocutaneous nerves 50 days after BPA and spinal samples 7 days after BPA were prepared for electron microscopy (EM) studies. Briefly, animals were perfused with 2.5% glutaraldehyde (sigma) plus 2% paraformaldehyde, 2-mm distal musculocutaneous nerves or ventral horns of C5–C7 spinal segments were collected for post-fixation at 4 °C overnight. Under dissection microscope, spinal tissues including ventral horn were trimmed into columns and transverse panels were identified for cutting. After washing in PBS, samples were immersed in 0.5% osmic acid, dehydrated in ethanol, and embedded in resin (EMbed 812, Electron Microscope Sciences). Semi-thin (500 nm) transverse sections were stained with 1% Toluidine Blue and images were captured under a 63 × oil objective. For ultrastructural analysis, 50-nm ultrathin sections were prepared for lead staining and the images were captured using a Philips 400 transmission electron microscope. In musculocutaneous nerves, the number of different-sized axons and G-ratio (the inner/the outer diameter of the myelin sheath) were measured using ImageJ.
In spinal sections, motoneurons with large cell bodies (> 35 μm in diameter) were photographed at × 9700 using a transmission electron microscope, and presynaptic terminals on motoneuron membranes were classified as F-type (flattened vesicles) and S-type (spherical vesicles), representing inhibitory and excitatory synapses respectively [17 (link)]. The boutons in 100-μm motoneuron membrane were counted. Three animals were used in each group, and 2 well-identified neurons were analyzed in each sample.
Yu L., Liu M., Li F., Wang Q., Wang M., So K.F., Qu Y, & Zhou L. (2023). Celsr2 Knockout Alleviates Inhibitory Synaptic Stripping and Benefits Motoneuron Survival and Axon Regeneration After Branchial Plexus Avulsion. Molecular Neurobiology, 60(4), 1884-1900.
Publication 2023
Animals Axon Cell Body Dissection Electron Microscopy Ethanol Glutaral Horns Microscopy Motor Neurons Myelin Sheath Nerves, Musculocutaneous Neurons Neurons, Efferent Osmium Tetroxide paraform Presynaptic Terminals Psychological Inhibition Resins, Plant Synapses Tissue, Membrane Tissues Tolonium Chloride Transmission Electron Microscopy
3
Asymmetric Vertical Vergence Paradigm
Before data collection, subjects were trained to fixate a high-contrast target rear projected onto a tangent screen 57 cm away and to perform various eye movement tasks specific to this study. The tasks included smooth-pursuit tracking of a horizontally and vertically moving sinusoidal target at 0.30Hz, ±15°, and asymmetric vertical vergence where one eye was stationary and only the other eye moved either upward or downward. Visual stimuli were generated using the BITS# visual stimulus generator (Cambridge Research Systems, Cambridge, UK) and Psychtoolbox 320 (link) operated under computer control and presented using a DepthQ projector running at 120-Hz frame rate (Lightspeed Design, Inc., Bellevue, WA, USA). A detailed description of the dichoptic stimulus used to induce vertical vergence has previously been described.21 Briefly, to create the vertical vergence stimulus, we used a full-field 50° × 50° stimulus pattern which comprised a dark background on which there was a bright central fixation cross (4° × 4°) and a sparse pattern of 50 dots (1° diameter each) placed randomly elsewhere. The stimulus pattern was presented dichoptically (using frame-sequential presentation to each eye in sync with liquid crystal display goggles) and vertical disparity was introduced by presenting one eye with the stationary pattern and the other eye with an identical pattern that was slowly displaced either upward or downward at the rate of 0.05 deg/s. To fuse the images being presented to each eye, the animal needed to generate an asymmetric vergence eye movement (i.e., one eye stationary and the other eye moving up or down). The large stimulus dot-pattern and the strategy of slow continuous introduction of vertical disparity helped to induce vertical vergence movements and furthermore to extend the range of vertical vergence such that modulations in motoneuron firing rate could be readily discerned. The horizontal and vertical positions of both eyes were recorded using the magnetic search coil technique (Primelec Industries, Regensdorf, Switzerland). We calibrated eye coil signals by monocularly presenting targets at several horizontal and vertical positions (±20°) and rewarding the animals with juice for maintaining fixation within a 2° window surrounding the target. Eye and target position data were processed with anti-aliasing filters at 400 Hz before sampling at 2.79 kHz with 12-bit precision (AlphaLab SNR system; Alpha-Omega Engineering, Nazareth, Israel). Eye position data were further calibrated offline and filtered using a finite impulse response low-pass filter with a bandwidth of 0 to 80 Hz before further analysis.
Adade S, & Das V.E. (2023). Investigation of Selective Innervation of Extraocular Muscle Compartments. Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, 64(2), 24.
Publication 2023
Animals Eye Movements Liquid Crystals Movement Neurons, Efferent Pursuit, Smooth Reading Frames Sinusoidal Beds Strains
4
Probing Neuroplasticity Biomarkers
Primary outcomes: The primary outcomes are neurophysiological biomarkers that accurately probe corticospinal and spinal neuroplasticity (at presynaptic and postsynaptic motoneuron levels):
Skiadopoulos A., Famodimu G.O., Solomon S.K., Agrawal P., Harel N.Y, & Knikou M. (2023). Priming locomotor training with transspinal stimulation in people with spinal cord injury: study protocol of a randomized clinical trial. Research Square.
Publication Preprint 2023
Biological Markers Neuronal Plasticity Neurons, Efferent
5
Noninvasive Transspinal Stimulation for SCI Rehabilitation
The key message of this research study is the use of noninvasive transspinal stimulation to increase the effectiveness of traditional rehabilitation such as locomotor training in individuals with SCI and probably for other types of upper motoneuron lesions. This will change the standard of care promoting noninvasive approaches of rehabilitation relying on scientific evidence and not on anecdotal observations. We will communicate our key findings via the following avenues: Broadcast media: academic journals, book chapters, technical reports, regular newspapers, special interest newsletters, radio, or television interviews, websites, and social media such as Twitter, local and national SCI foundation newsletters, development of links with key SCI organizations. Personal contact: Clinical Specialty associations, Informal professional networks, Professional conferences, Professional meetings (e.g., grand rounds), workshops and other continuing medical education training.
Skiadopoulos A., Famodimu G.O., Solomon S.K., Agrawal P., Harel N.Y, & Knikou M. (2023). Priming locomotor training with transspinal stimulation in people with spinal cord injury: study protocol of a randomized clinical trial. Research Square.
Publication Preprint 2023
Conferences Education, Medical, Continuing Grand Rounds Neurons, Efferent Rehabilitation Workshops

Top products related to «Neurons, Efferent»

1
Digidata 1440a by Molecular Devices
Sourced in United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Japan
The Digidata 1440A is a high-performance data acquisition system designed for a variety of electrophysiology applications. It features 16-bit analog-to-digital conversion, multiple sampling rates, and simultaneous acquisition of multiple channels. The Digidata 1440A provides the hardware interface for recording and digitizing electrophysiological signals.
2
Spike2 by Cambridge Electronic Design
Sourced in United Kingdom, United States, Germany
Spike2 software is a data acquisition and analysis tool for electrophysiology research. It provides a comprehensive set of features for recording, visualizing, and analyzing neural signals, such as spikes, local field potentials, and analog waveforms. The software supports a wide range of data acquisition hardware, enabling users to capture and process electrophysiological data from various experimental setups.
3
Mds 290 digital camera system by Kodak
The MDS 290 is a digital camera system designed for laboratory and scientific applications. It features a high-resolution sensor, advanced image processing capabilities, and connectivity options for integration with various software and hardware systems. The MDS 290 is intended to capture and digitize images for analysis, documentation, and research purposes.
4
Sylgard by Dow
Sourced in United States, United Kingdom, Germany
Sylgard is a silicone-based encapsulant and potting compound developed by Dow. It is designed to protect and insulate electronic components and devices. Sylgard provides superior electrical insulation, thermal conductivity, and resistance to environmental factors such as moisture, chemicals, and vibration.
5
Trypsin by Merck Group
Sourced in United States, Germany, United Kingdom, China, Italy, Japan, Sao Tome and Principe, Canada, Macao, Poland, India, France, Spain, Portugal, Australia, Switzerland, Ireland, Belgium, Sweden, Israel, Brazil, Czechia, Denmark, Austria
Trypsin is a serine protease enzyme that is commonly used in cell biology and biochemistry laboratories. Its primary function is to facilitate the dissociation and disaggregation of adherent cells, allowing for the passive release of cells from a surface or substrate. Trypsin is widely utilized in various cell culture applications, such as subculturing and passaging of adherent cell lines.
6
Digidata 1322a by Molecular Devices
Sourced in United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Hungary, Canada
The Digidata 1322A is a data acquisition system designed for electrophysiology and related applications. It provides high-speed digital sampling and signal conditioning capabilities to interface with a variety of research equipment.
7
Lsmz10 confocal microscope by Zeiss
The LSMZ10 is a confocal microscope designed and manufactured by Zeiss. It is a high-performance imaging system that allows for the visualization and analysis of microscopic samples with exceptional clarity and resolution. The LSMZ10 utilizes laser scanning technology to capture detailed images of specimens, enabling researchers to study cellular structures, biological processes, and other microscopic phenomena with precision.
8
Axoclamp 2b amplifier by Molecular Devices
Sourced in United States, United Kingdom, Australia, Israel
The Axoclamp 2B amplifier is a high-performance instrument designed for electrophysiological research applications. It serves as a voltage-clamp and current-clamp amplifier, enabling precise measurements of electrical signals from a variety of biological preparations, such as cells and tissues.
9
Labchart 7 powerlab 16sp by ADInstruments
Sourced in Australia
LabChart 7 is a data acquisition and analysis software that works with the PowerLab 16sp hardware. It is designed to record, display, and analyze various types of physiological signals.
10
Clampex 10 by Molecular Devices
Sourced in United States, Canada, United Kingdom
Clampex 10.2 is a software application designed for data acquisition and analysis in electrophysiology experiments. It provides a user-friendly interface for controlling and configuring various hardware devices used in patch-clamp and voltage-clamp techniques.

More about "Neurons, Efferent"

Efferent neurons, also known as motor neurons or effector neurons, are a crucial component of the nervous system.
These specialized nerve cells are responsible for transmitting signals from the central nervous system (CNS) to various effector organs, such as muscles and glands.
Efferent neurons play a pivotal role in coordinating the body's voluntary and involuntary responses, serving as the final common pathway for motor control.
Efferent neurons can be classified into two main categories: motor neurons and autonomic neurons.
Motor neurons innervate skeletal muscles, enabling voluntary movement and muscle contraction.
Autonomic neurons, on the other hand, control the function of internal organs, regulating vital physiological processes like heart rate, respiration, and digestion.
Understanding the structure and function of efferent neurons is essential for researchers studying motor control, neuropathology, and the regulation of physiological processes.
Techniques like patch-clamp recordings, calcium imaging, and single-cell transcriptomics, enabled by tools like the Digidata 1440A data acquisition system, Spike2 software, and the MDS 290 digital camera system, have provided invaluable insights into the electrophysiological properties and genetic profiles of these neurons.
Additionally, the use of Sylgard and Trypsin in dissection and cell culture protocols, as well as the application of the Digidata 1322A data acquisition system, LSMZ10 confocal microscope, Axoclamp 2B amplifier, and LabChart 7 (PowerLab 16sp) software, have contributed to the advancement of research on efferent neurons and their role in motor control and physiological regulation.
By leveraging these tools and techniques, researchers can gain a deeper understanding of the structure, function, and pathology of efferent neurons, ultimately leading to improved therapies and interventions for conditions affecting motor control and autonomic function.