Hypopigmentation

The extensive demographic dataset available on semi-captive Asian elephants from Myanmar has been collated from elephant log-books and annual extraction reports archived and maintained by the Myanma Timber Enterprise. State ownership of thousands of elephants enables recording data of all registered elephants on: registration number and name; origin (wild-caught or captive-born); date and place of birth; mother’s registration number and name; method, year and place of capture (if wild-captured); dates and identities of all calves born; date and cause of death or last known date alive. The log-books are maintained and updated by local veterinarians and extraction managers at least bi-monthly to check individual elephant health and working ability. Between-individual variation in workload or rest periods is limited by law: all state-owned elephants are subject to the same regulations set by central government for hours of work/week, working days/year, and tonnage to extract/elephant. The ages of captive-born elephants are known precisely from dates of birth, whereas wild-caught elephants are aged by comparing their height and body condition at capture with captive elephants of known age, as well as many other physical features varying with age in Asian elephants such as wrinkling, depigmentation and ear folding [53 ]-[56 (link)]. The extent of depigmentation (freckles) on trunk, face and temporal areas, and the degree of folding of the upper edge of the ear increase with age, while hairiness of the tail tuft and degree of corrugation or wrinkliness of the skin reduce with increasing age. The Myanmar elephant catchers and trainers take careful consideration of all physical features in estimating age of wild-caught elephants. The method is considered relatively accurate, and the error in these estimates is likely to be within one year for young animals (under 20), which form the majority (68%) of those captured from the wild [57 ].
The entire studbook currently includes 8759 elephants born and/or captured 1900–2000; data available for this study from 2000 onwards only includes updated calving/survival status information for 207 adolescent/adult elephants and 639 calves born 2000–2012. Of all 4742 females (of which many died before reaching reproductive age), 1463 reproduced by 2000/2012. We excluded wild-caught individuals captured before 1952 because only limited records were available prior then. We also excluded 18 individuals with erroneous age at first or last reproduction, lifespan or calving date. The remaining sample includes 1040 females (471 captive-born and 569 wild-born) of which 320 had already died before 2000/2012 whilst 720 were still alive in 2000/2012 (Table 1). These females delivered 2727 calves by 2000/2012. The maximum lifespan in the sample for captive-born females is 65 years, died in 2006. The oldest wild-born female died in 1995 at 79.6 years. These elephants come from 31 timber extraction areas within ten regions in Myanmar: Ayeyarwaddy, Bago, Chin, Kachin, Magway, Mandalay, Rakhine, Sagaing, Shan and Tanin.

Most of the complications related to these interventions were analyzed. The side effect of the steroid varies based on the body site where it is injected; in the joint, muscle or spine. A review done by Hynes and Kavanagh, 2022 reveals that extra-articular steroid injection reports minor and major events in 0.81% and 0.5 to 8%, respectively while the injection in shoulder joints presents the major reaction in 18.1% [68 (link)]. As in our study, the injection was locally applied to the heel region; there were few chances of side effects like pain and discomfort for a few days, temporary bursitis, and flushing of the face for a few hours. The systemic side effects of local steroid injection are poorly understood and not well recognized, hence clinically insignificant [69 (link)]. Although there is a rise in blood glucose in diabetic participants, it is considered clinically insignificant [70 , 71 ]. Plantar fascia rupture and heel fat pad atrophy are associated with local steroid injections in the long term which is around only 2.4–6.7% [72 (link)]. The steroid injection may develop temporary or permanent neural dysfunction leading to economic or social disabilities [73 (link)]. Hypopigmentation and atrophy of the skin may occur [74 , 75 ], which is interestingly re-pigmented with exposure to ultraviolet light after a few months [76 (link), 77 (link)]. Moreover, normal saline injection is considered a very effective modality to treat progressive cutaneous atrophy [78 (link)]. However, there were no such cases in our study. On the other side, PRP treatment is considered a safe and effective approach having very less side effects [33 (link)]. As this study was performed in a highly specialized tertiary hospital, the institution had a well-managed setup to handle in case of any immediate adverse reaction occurred.