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Hyposmia

Hyposmia: A diminished or reduced sense of smell, often resulting from damage to the olfactory system.
This condition can have various causes, including head trauma, nasal/sinus infections, neurodegenerative diseases, and exposure to certain toxins.
Hyposmia can significantly impact one's quality of life, affecting the ability to detect dangerous odors, enjoy food, and experience the full range of sensory experiences.
Accurate assessment and effective treatment of hyposmia is an important area of medical research.
PubCompare.ai offers a powerful platform to streamline this research, enabling scientists to quickly identify the most effective and reproducable protocols and products for studying hyposmia.

Most cited protocols related to «Hyposmia»

1
Recurrence and Refractoriness in Japanese CRS
This multicenter retrospective study was implemented to examine the factors related to recurrence or refractoriness of CRS in the Japanese population from 2011 to 2012. ‘Recurrent’ CRS was defined as CRS that presented recurring nasal polyps or sinusitis (nasal symptoms) after ESS. ‘Refractory’ CRS was defined as recurrent CRS that was not cured by any medical treatment after ESS. This study was conducted in 15 institutions of Japan and related facilities participating in the grants‐in‐aid program (Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare Grant; Japan Epidemiological Survey of Refractory Eosinophilic Chronic Rhinosinusitis [JESREC] Study). The study was approved by the ethics committee of each institution participating in the JESREC Study.
We assessed patients with CRS (including CRSwNP and CRSsNP) treated with ESS from January 2007 to December 2009 in the 15 institutions. The diagnosis of sinus disease was based on patient history, clinical examination, nasal endoscopy, and computed tomography (CT) of the sinuses, according to the guidelines of the European Position Paper on Rhinosinusitis and Nasal Polyps 1. Our study excluded patients treated with systemic or topical corticosteroids before surgery, patients whose information on systemic or topical corticosteroids was unknown, patients who were followed up for <28 days after surgery, patients whose white blood cell counts were 10 000/μl or more, as well as patients from which there was no pathological specimen.
Preoperative demographic and medical history including sex, age, age of onset, reaction to drugs, history of smoking, complications, and drug allergies were obtained from each patient. Rhinology specialists assessed all participants on seven symptoms and signs before surgery: nasal polyps, viscous rhinorrhea, postnasal drip, facial pain, hyposmia, anosmia, and closure of the olfactory cleft. Blood samples were taken to perform complete blood counts and measure 10 types of antigen‐specific IgE. CT findings were graded according to the Lund–MacKay method 13. Recurrence of CRS was defined as the presence of nasal polyps or nasal symptoms in nasal endoscopy.
Tokunaga T., Sakashita M., Haruna T., Asaka D., Takeno S., Ikeda H., Nakayama T., Seki N., Ito S., Murata J., Sakuma Y., Yoshida N., Terada T., Morikura I., Sakaida H., Kondo K., Teraguchi K., Okano M., Otori N., Yoshikawa M., Hirakawa K., Haruna S., Himi T., Ikeda K., Ishitoya J., Iino Y., Kawata R., Kawauchi H., Kobayashi M., Yamasoba T., Miwa T., Urashima M., Tamari M., Noguchi E., Ninomiya T., Imoto Y., Morikawa T., Tomita K., Takabayashi T, & Fujieda S. (2015). Novel scoring system and algorithm for classifying chronic rhinosinusitis: the JESREC Study. Allergy, 70(8), 995-1003.
Publication 2015
Adrenal Cortex Hormones Antigens BLOOD Complete Blood Count Diagnosis Drug Allergy Drug Reaction, Adverse Endoscopy, Gastrointestinal Eosinophil Europeans Facial Pain Hyposmia Institutional Ethics Committees Japanese Leukocyte Count Nasal Polyps Nose Ocular Refraction Operative Surgical Procedures Patients Physical Examination Recurrence Rhinorrhea Sense of Smell Sinus Disease, Paranasal Sinuses, Nasal Sinusitis Specialists Viscosity X-Ray Computed Tomography
2
Prospective Study of Neurodegenerative Risk Factors
In the baseline assessment of the TREND study (Tübinger evaluation of Risk factors for Early detection of Neurodegenerative Disorders) 715 subjects aged 50–80 years with or without risk factors for Parkinson's and Alzheimer's disease (hyposmia, depression, REM sleep behavior disorder) were investigated prospectively in 2009 and 2010. A detailed description of the study outline, including inclusion and exclusion criteria, and baseline assessments, is given in (Berg et al., submitted). In brief, all subjects were pre-screened via telephone interview, and were excluded if they reported a history of psychiatric diseases (other than primary depression), dementia, epilepsy, stroke, multiple sclerosis, encephalitis and malignancies, intake of antipsychotics and other drugs that are able to promote Parkinsonian symptoms, and inability to walk without aids or assistance. In addition, disorders that could allow only incomplete study performance, such as paresis, sensory loss or significant impairment of vision or hearing all lead to primary exclusion of the subjects from the study.
From the investigated 715 subjects, a total of 29 subjects were excluded from this analysis due to the following reasons: Eleven met the criteria for Parkinson disease according to the UK Brain Bank Society criteria, eight had incomplete TMT data, five had negative delta TMT values, and five had a Mini-Mental Score Examination score <25. For demographic characteristics see table 1.
Hobert M.A., Niebler R., Meyer S.I., Brockmann K., Becker C., Huber H., Gaenslen A., Godau J., Eschweiler G.W., Berg D, & Maetzler W. (2011). Poor Trail Making Test Performance Is Directly Associated with Altered Dual Task Prioritization in the Elderly – Baseline Results from the TREND Study. PLoS ONE, 6(11), e27831.
Publication 2011
Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome Alzheimer's Disease Antipsychotic Agents Brain Cerebrovascular Accident Dementia Early Diagnosis Encephalitis Epilepsy Hyposmia Malignant Neoplasms Mental Disorders Multiple Sclerosis Neurodegenerative Disorders Paresis Parkinson Disease Parkinsonian Disorders Pharmaceutical Preparations REM Sleep Behavior Disorder
3
COVID-19's Impact on Olfactory Dysfunction
The occurrence of anosmia or hyposmia has been identified in the questionnaire. The impact of olfactory dysfunction on the quality of life (QoL) of patients has been assessed through the validated sQOD-NS (Appendix 1) [9 (link)]. This is a seven-item patient-reported outcome questionnaire including social, eating, annoyance, and anxiety questions. Each item is rated on a scale of 0–3, with higher scores reflecting better olfactory-specific QoL. The total score ranges from 0 (severe impact on QoL) to 21 (no impact on QoL) [9 (link)]. The rest of the olfactory and gustatory questions were based on the smell and taste component of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [10 (link)]. This population survey was implemented by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to continuously monitor the health of adult citizens in the United States through a nationally representative sample of 5000 persons yearly [10 (link)]. The questions have been chosen to characterize the variation, timing, and associated symptoms of both olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions, and, therefore, they suggest a potential etiology. Note that we assessed the mean recovery time of olfaction through four defined propositions: 1–4 days; 5–8 days; 9–14 days; and > 15 days.
Referring to the studies that have demonstrated that the viral load was significantly decreased after 14 days [11 (link)], we assessed the short-term olfaction non-recovery rate on patients exhibiting double criteria: an onset of the infection > 14 days before the assessment and the lack of general symptoms at the time of the evaluation.
Lechien J.R., Chiesa-Estomba C.M., De Siati D.R., Horoi M., Le Bon S.D., Rodriguez A., Dequanter D., Blecic S., El Afia F., Distinguin L., Chekkoury-Idrissi Y., Hans S., Delgado I.L., Calvo-Henriquez C., Lavigne P., Falanga C., Barillari M.R., Cammaroto G., Khalife M., Leich P., Souchay C., Rossi C., Journe F., Hsieh J., Edjlali M., Carlier R., Ris L., Lovato A., De Filippis C., Coppee F., Fakhry N., Ayad T, & Saussez S. (2020). Olfactory and gustatory dysfunctions as a clinical presentation of mild-to-moderate forms of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19): a multicenter European study. European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology, 277(8), 2251-2261.
Publication 2020
Adult Anxiety Hyposmia Infection Patients Sense of Smell Taste Taste Dysfunction
4
Evaluating Arabic SFAR in Allergic Rhinitis
The study protocol was approved by the Research Center of Medical College of King Saud University and its Ethical Committee, and all participants provided informed consent. Individuals with poor Arabic reading and writing abilities, or with a non-Arabic mother language, were excluded from this study. This cross-sectional study evaluated 75 control participants and 173 patients with AR, who were recruited from the primary healthcare clinic at King Abdul-Aziz University Hospital in Riyadh during August–November 2016. All patients with AR had signs and symptoms that were confirmed by our otolaryngologists. The controls were healthy individuals who had accompanied the patients to the otolaryngology clinic, but were found to not have AR signs/symptoms by our otolaryngologists. All investigators were otolaryngologist specialists or consultants who were blinded to the purpose of the study.
Before the clinic visit, potential participants were asked to sign the consent form and then complete the Arabic SFAR. The completed questionnaires were placed in sealed envelopes and given to the clinic nurses in order to blind the physicians to the responses. All participants were assessed by our otolaryngologists to document their history, including presence or absence of AR symptoms (sneezing, nasal congestion, watery rhinorrhea, postnasal drip, nasal itching, anosmia/hyposmia, headache, tearing, red eyes, fatigue, and malaise), and completed a physical examination to document AR signs (allergic shiners, nasal crease, swollen nasal mucosa, pale, bluish-gray color, watery nasal discharge, and nasal septum deviation or perforation).
Alharethy S., Al Wedami M., Syouri F., Alqabbani A.A., Baqays A., Mesallam T, & Aldrees T. (2017). Validation of the Arabic version of the score for allergic rhinitis tool. Annals of Saudi Medicine, 37(5), 357-361.
Publication 2017
Blindness Clinic Visits Eye Fatigue Headache Hyposmia Mothers Nasal Mucosa Nose Nurses Otolaryngologist Patients Physical Examination Physicians Primary Health Care Rhinorrhea Septums, Nasal Shiner Signs and Symptoms Specialists
5
PPMI: Longitudinal Parkinson's Biomarkers Study
The PPMI (Parkinson’s Progression Markers Initiative) is an ongoing, prospective, longitudinal, observational, international multicenter study that aims to identify biomarkers for the progression of PD. As described,5 (link),9 (link) newly diagnosed, drug-naïve PD patients (N = 423) and age- and sex-matched HCs (N = 196) were included (http://ppmi-info.org/study-design). Inclusion and exclusion criteria have been published elsewhere.9 (link) Briefly, inclusion criteria for PD participants were the following: (1) aged >30 years; (2) presence of two of the following: bradykinesia, rigidity, and resting tremor or an asymmetric resting tremor or asymmetric bradykinesia; (3) diagnosis made within the last 24 months; (4) PD drug naïvety, and (5) dopamine transporter (DaT) deficit in the putamen on 123-I Ioflupane DaT imaging by central reading.
Between July 2013 and March 2015 participants with isolated (iRBD) rapid eye movement (REM) sleep behavior disorder (RBD) or isolated hyposmia were recruited in PPMI centers for the prodromal part of PPMI. iRBD participants met the following criteria: (1) men or women aged ≥60 years and (2) confirmation of RBD by polysomnography (PSG) with central reading (details below) and/or clinical diagnosis of RBD by the site investigator, including existing PSG. Central PSG interpretation10 (link) was based on the following criteria: (1) 18% of any electromyography (EMG) activity in m. mentalis, 32% of any EMG activity in mentalis and flexor digitorum superficialis (FDS; in 3-second bins); (2) 27% of any EMG activity in m. mentalis and 32% of any EMG activity in m. mentalis and FDS (in 30-second bins). In 2 cases, a central PSG reading was not available because of technical difficulties with electronic PSG transfer, but these participants had a clinical diagnosis of iRBD by the site investigator, including previous PSG, and also had to show decreased DaT imaging.
Hyposmic participants were aged ≥60 years with olfaction at or below the 10th percentile by age and sex, as determined by the University of Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test (UPSIT). All iRBD and hyposmic participants also required confirmation from the imaging core at the Institute for Neurodegenerative Disorders that screening DaTscan (or vesicular monoamine transporter type 2/PET scan for sites where DaTscan is not available) was read as eligible. Around 80% of the prodromal participants were selected with a DaT deficit similar to participants with early PD, and 20% were selected with no DaT deficit. Prodromal subjects without DaT deficit were similar in age, sex, and risk profile to those with mild-to-moderate DaT deficit. Exclusion criteria can be found in the study protocol at http://www.ppmi-info.org/study-design/research-documentsand-sops/.
This article is based on α-syn analyses from CSF samples obtained from PD and HCs at baseline and 6-, 12-, 24-, and 36-month visits and for prodromal subjects at baseline and 6- and 12-month visits; overall data were downloaded December 4, 2017 from the PPMI database (www.ppmi-info.org).
Mollenhauer B., Caspell-Garcia C.J., Coffey C.S., Taylor P., Singleton A., Shaw L.M., Trojanowski J.Q., Frasier M., Simuni T., Iranzo A., Oertel W., Siderowf A., Weintraub D., Seibyl J., Toga A.W., Tanner C.M., Kieburtz K., Chahine L.M., Marek K, & Galasko D. (2019). Longitudinal Analyses of Cerebrospinal Fluid α-Synuclein in Prodromal and Early Parkinson’s Disease. Movement disorders : official journal of the Movement Disorder Society, 34(9), 1354-1364.
Publication 2019
123I-ioflupane Biological Markers Bradykinesia Diagnosis Disease Progression Electromyography Electron Transport Hyposmia Muscle Rigidity Neurodegenerative Disorders Patients Pharmaceutical Preparations Polysomnography Positron-Emission Tomography Putamen REM Sleep Behavior Disorder Resting Tremor Sense of Smell SLC6A3 protein, human Vesicular Monoamine Transporter 2 Woman

Most recents protocols related to «Hyposmia»

1
Olfactory Dysfunction Recovery in COVID-19
Place, duration, and design of the study
This prospective single-center study was performed in our department between May 2021 and December 2021.
Ethics
Informed consent was obtained for all patients. The examinations were only performed after a careful explanation of the characteristics, non-invasiveness, and aim of the study. The study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Centro Hospitalar Universitário do Porto (Number: 2021.93 [075-DEFI/078-CE]) and the design complies with the Declaration of Helsinki ethical standards.
Inclusion criteria
Adulthood, OD concomitant with SARS-CoV-2 documented infection), subjective persistence of OD, and a cognitive status that allowed the patient to sign an informed consent and to self-treat with the medical therapeutic proposed.
Exclusion criteria
Chronic rhinosinusitis, recent head trauma with loss of consciousness, olfactory complaints before documented COVID-19, gestation, prior nasal surgery, known olfactory bulb lesion on imaging, neurologic or psychiatric disease, or inability to tolerate nasal endoscopy.
Evaluation
Our evaluation consisted of several steps: A general assessment of days before the onset of hyposmia, co-morbidities, a subjective assessment using the Portuguese Language Olfactory Disorders Questionnaire [12 (link)], and a VAS toward subjective impairment of hyposmia in quality of life. Our VAS consisted of an 11-point scale ranging between 0 and 10, being “not a problem” on the left end of the scale (number 0) and “worst problem in my life” on the right end of the scale (number 10). An objective assessment of olfactory thresholds using the Sniffin´ Sticks threshold test with n-butanol: 16 levels in 48 pens were also performed [13 (link)]. The nasal status assessment was performed by nasal endoscopy for exclusion of nasal pathology and evaluation of Lund-Kennedy score - when a polyp score ≥ 1 was seen, the patient was excluded from our cohort while follow-up and further management were maintained in parallel. Also, all patients underwent olfactory training and adjuvant therapy using the strategy described in the protocol described by Sousa et al. [14 (link)].
Variables evaluated
Age, gender, relevant comorbidities, date of perceived onset of OD, olfactory thresholds, and VAS (related to OD). Patients were re-evaluated after three months, and data was collected.
Statistical analysis
Collected data were analyzed using SPSS version 26 (Statistical Package for Social Studies) - IBM, USA. For numerical values, the range, mean, and standard deviations were calculated. The differences between the two mean values were used using the Mann-Whitney U test. Differences in mean values before and after the intervention were done by Wilcoxon signed ranks test. The correlation between VAS and olfactory thresholds was done using Pearson’s correlation coefficient. To access the confounding variables, ANCOVA analysis was also performed. All reported p-values are two-tailed, with a p-value ≤ 0.05 indicating statistical significance.
De Sousa Machado A., Sousa F., Silva A, & Meireles L. (2023). Visual Analog Scale and Olfactory Objective Tests in Hyposmia Patients: Is There a Link?. Cureus, 15(2), e34712.
Publication 2023
argipressin, Asu(1,6)- Butyl Alcohol Cognition COVID 19 Craniocerebral Trauma Endoscopy, Gastrointestinal Ethics Committees Gender Hyposmia Language Disorders Mental Disorders Nose Olfaction Disorders Olfactory Bulb Patients Pharmaceutical Adjuvants Physical Examination Polyps Pregnancy Sense of Smell Sousa Surgical Procedure, Nasal Systems, Nervous Therapeutics Vision
2
Multicenter Study on Neurodegenerative Disorders
We prospectively screened 41 patients with iRBD, based on current diagnostic criteria8 and 23 matched patients who came to our observation for a RBD as an impacting clinical symptom and finally received the diagnosis of type 1 Narcolepsy (NT1, 21 patients) or an iatrogenic RBD (2 patients) according to current criteria8 . A 77-years-old RBD-NT1 patient presented a young-onset (32 years) parkinsonism not responding to Ldopa treatment. In addition, 11 patients with peripheral neuropathies suspected to be autoimmune (PN) and 6 patients with obstructive apnea during sleep (OSAS) who underwent to puncture lumbar were also recruited as controls without a supposed neurodegenerative disorder. Patients with RBD underwent video– polysomnography (PSG) recording which documented REM sleep without atonia and at least one episode of RBD. Patients underwent extensive examinations, with complete clinical and neurological examination, neuropsychological investigations by means of a brief mental deterioration battery (BMDB), a neuropsychological test standardized in the Italian population expressing a global cognitive impairment when the final score is negative (<0)20 (link), brain MRI, nigrostriatal dopamine transporter ligand [123I]ioflupane-DaTscan (Table 1). Hyposmia was reported by patients during the neurological examination (Table 1).
Patients with alcohol-use disorder, taking antidepressants, or beta-blockers or with signs of motor or cognitive dysfunctions were excluded.
The study has been approved by the local Human Ethics Committee (Comitato Etico Indipendente-AVEC, Azienda USL Bologna and Imola, n. 13004/Sper/AUSLBO) and followed the Helsinki Declaration regarding international clinical research involving human beings. All subjects gave their written informed consent to the study.
Liguori R., Donadio V., Wang Z., Incensi A., Rizzo G., Antelmi E., Biscarini F., Pizza F., Zou W, & Plazzi G. (2023). A comparative blind study between skin biopsy and seed amplification assay to disclose pathological α-synuclein in RBD. NPJ Parkinson's Disease, 9, 34.
Publication 2023
Adrenergic beta-Antagonists Alcohol Use Disorder Antidepressive Agents Brain Diagnosis Disorders, Cognitive Homo sapiens Hyposmia Iodine-123 ioflupane Levodopa Ligands Lumbar Region Mental Deterioration Narcolepsy 1 Neurodegenerative Disorders Neurologic Examination Neuropsychological Tests Parkinsonian Disorders Patients Peripheral Nervous System Diseases Physical Examination Polysomnography Punctures Regional Ethics Committees SLC6A3 protein, human Sleep, REM Sleep Apnea, Obstructive
3
Olfactory Dysfunction in Delta Variant COVID-19

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Publication 2023
Bacteriophages Cacosmia Chinese COVID 19 Ethics Committees, Research Females Hyposmia Japanese Males Odors Patients Personnel, Hospital Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction SARS-CoV-2 B.1.617.2 variant Sense of Smell Virus
4
Olfactory Function Assessment with OSIT-J

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Publication 2023
Cacosmia Garlic Hyposmia Japanese melamine Mentha Microcapsules Milk, Cow's Odorants Odors Oils, Volatile Pastes Pheromone Pinus Resins, Plant Sense of Smell
5
Olfactory Rehabilitation for Laryngectomized Patients
This multicentric study was conducted among patients who had undergone TL and who were recruited during follow-up visits over the period from June 2020 to May 2021 at (1) Otolaryngology Unit, Department of Health Science, University of Catanzaro, Italy; (2) the Otolaryngology Unit, Cannizzaro Hospital, Catania, Italy. The only inclusion criterion was completion of a speech rehabilitation course with ES or TES for at least 6 months. Smell rehabilitation patients, patients previously affected by alterations of smell, inflammatory or neoplastic sinonasal pathologies, patients who did not undergo voice rehabilitation or used electrolaryngeal speech, non-self-sufficient patients with disabilities of the upper limbs or with cognitive impairments, patients with loco-regional recurrence, and patients who refused to participate in the study were excluded.
The rehabilitation programme with ES was accomplished from the 15th through the 20th day after TL, as soon as the patient was able to eat orally, whereas rehabilitation with TES began the day after the insertion of the prosthesis and included specific training that consisted, initially, of training the emission of isolated vowels, gradually building up to the pronunciation of short sentences. The average time for administration of the programmed speech therapy within which the ES was learned was three months, whereas the time needed to learn TES was a few weeks. All the patients were instructed by speech language pathologists with extensive experience in the rehabilitation of laryngectomised patients.
Patients underwent endoscopic evaluation of the nasal cavities through optical fibre rhinoscopy to assess the absence of rhinosinus pathologies. Olfactory function was evaluated using the Sniffin’ Sticks test (Burghardt®, Wedel, Germany) for smell threshold and odour discrimination tests. The Sniffin’ Sticks test is a validated olfactory test that evaluates olfactory Threshold Discrimination and Identification (TDI) score by administering felt-tipped pens filled with odours to patients’ nostrils 14 (link). For the olfactory threshold test, the threshold concentration at which the patient can identify n-butanol is established using a scale technique based on a forced choice of three alternatives. Among the pens presented, the patient must indicate the one they think contains the odorous substance. Odour discrimination ability is determined using 16 individual tests. Among the triplet presented, the patient must identify the marker that contains an odorous substance that differs from the other two. The odour identification test is conducted using 16 common odours. The patient must identify the smell by choosing the image or term that identifies it from the four variables presented. The numerical value obtained in the three tests is added to obtain the TDI score. TDI values ≥ 30.5 indicate normosmia, those from 16.6-30.5 hyposmia, and those ≤ 16.5 anosmia 15 (link). The test was performed in a large and airy room, and patients were asked not to eat at least 2 hours before the test. Patients were also asked not to use body perfumes on the day they were tested. All the patients had their eyes covered before beginning the smell threshold and odour discrimination tests.
Bianco M.R., Pricoco G.O., Azzolina A., Drago G.D., Saita V, & Allegra E. (2023). Olfactory function in laryngectomised patients: tracheo-oesophageal versus oesophageal speech. Acta Otorhinolaryngologica Italica, 43(1), 20-25.
Publication 2023
Butyl Alcohol Disabled Persons Discrimination, Psychology Disorders, Cognitive Endoscopy Eye Feelings GART protein, human Human Body Hyposmia Inflammation Nasal Cavity Neoplasms Odors Olfactory Training Pathologists Patients Prosthesis Implantation Recurrence Rehabilitation Sense of Smell Speech Speech Therapy Triplets Upper Extremity

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More about "Hyposmia"

Olfactory Dysfunction, Anosmia, Decreased Sense of Smell, Reduced Olfaction, Smell Impairment, Odor Identification Deficits.
Hyposmia, the diminished or reduced ability to detect and identify odors, can have a significant impact on an individual's quality of life, affecting their ability to enjoy food, detect dangerous smells, and experience the full range of sensory experiences.
This condition can result from various causes, including head trauma, nasal/sinus infections, neurodegenerative diseases, and exposure to certain toxins.
Accurate assessment and effective treatment of hyposmia is an important area of medical research.
Researchers can leverage powerful platforms like PubCompare.ai to streamline their studies.
PubCompare.ai uses advanced AI algorithms to quickly identify the most effective and reproducible protocols and products for studying hyposmia, drawing from a vast database of scientific literature, preprints, and patents.
By utilizing PubCompare.ai, researchers can save time and resources, ensuring their studies are based on the latest and most reliable information.
The platform's suite of cutting-edge tools, such as SPSS version 21, SPSS v20, STATA version 11, SPSS Statistics 25, SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 25.0, and Stata version 14, provide researchers with the necessary statistical analysis capabilities to uncover insights and drive their hyposmia research forward.
With PubCompare.ai, the future of scientific discovery is here, empowering researchers to make breakthroughs in understanding and treating this complex condition.