Haemophilus influenzae type b

The study was carried out in Maela, a long-term camp for displaced persons in rural Northwest Thailand. Maela has a population of ∼40,000 displaced persons from Myanmar, predominantly of Karen ethnicity, who live in a 4 km² area. Camp residents receive WHO EPI (Expanded Program on Immunization) immunizations. Haemophilus influenzae type B (HiB) and pneumococcal vaccines are not available. Shoklo Malaria Research Unit (SMRU) has provided medical care in this population since 1986.
Between October 2007 and November 2008, all pregnant women attending the SMRU antenatal clinic at 28–30 weeks gestation were invited to consent to their infant's participation in a pneumonia cohort study. Using sealed opaque envelopes containing an allocation code, women were randomly allocated to the pneumococcal carriage sub-cohort at enrolment. For this sub-cohort, women had a nasopharyngeal swab (NPS) taken at delivery and both infant and mother had a NPS taken at monthly surveillance visits from 1–24 months of age. Samples of blood were collected from the mother and umbilical cord at delivery and infant blood samples were taken at each monthly visit.

The region where the African country is located (inside or outside the AMB) was the outcome variable of the categorical regression model (main objective). Categorization of African countries into these two groups has been previously proposed by Laxminarayan et al. (41 (link)), Mazamay et al. (1 (link)), and the GBD study (13 (link)).
The number of BM cases per 100,000 population reported by each country in 2016, was extracted from the GBD study and calculated after adding the incident cases of meningitis caused by N. meningitidis, H. influenzae type B, and S. pneumoniae (secondary objective). The punctual location of each country was defined with latitude and longitude coordinates provided by Google Data Explorer. Besides, we calculated geohash (base-32) and transformed it into the decimal system (42 ).
Considering the literature about socioepidemiological features associated with BM, a set of 60 potential regressors was evaluated for each country including geo-environmental aspects, demographic characteristics, socioeconomic conditions, unmet basic needs, smoking and alcohol habits, nutritional variables, coverage of vitamin A supplementation, vaccination rates (immunization against N. meningitidis was not available for most countries), and additional causes of morbidity (for the operational definition of variables, and their source, see the Supplementary Table 1).

This article presents the findings of secondary analyses of data sourced from the National Family Health Survey (NFHS). NFHS is a large-scale, multi-round survey conducted in a representative sample of households throughout India [9 ]. It is used as a reference to assess the progress the country has achieved across a multitude of programs. These include family planning, maternal and delivery care, child vaccinations, treatment of childhood diseases, feeding practices and nutrition status of children, nutrition status of adults, anemia among children and adults, blood sugar and hypertension level among adults, tobacco and alcohol consumption, screening for cancer among adults, knowledge on HIV/AIDs among adults, women empowerment, and gender-based violence. The data are publicly available in the form of factsheets, state reports, and raw data for national, state, and district levels.
Data for immunization are available for the point of service (public and private) and the coverage estimates for individual antigens (BCG), hepatitis B birth dose, pentavalent (DPT, hepatitis B, and Haemophilus influenzae type b), oral polio vaccine, measles-containing vaccine (MCV), and rotavirus vaccine (RVV). In addition, data are available for key equity parameters including gender, place of residence, religion, birth order, caste, and mother’s schooling. While the NFHS factsheets provide data on key coverage indicators, the equity indicators are included as part of the state reports. The state reports also provide data on other program indicators, the impact of which can be assessed on the immunization program. Coverage of key immunization indicators for districts is available in the state reports.
Using equity differentiated data from NFHS state reports, this article aims to analyze the progress achieved across states of the country in reaching out to ZD children between the last two NFHS rounds (NFHS 5, 2019-2021 and NFHS 4, 2015-2016). ZD proportions were measured using pentavalent 1 coverage as the indicator. The key determinants studied include the change in ZD prevalence at the national, state, and district levels; the proportion of change in equity determinants; the states with maximum improvements; the maximum disparity across these indicators; and the overall reduction in disparities. The data were interpreted in the form of tables and maps. The maps were created using choropleth maps on Datawrapper [10 ] and the map feature on Microsoft Excel.
A correlation analysis was conducted to understand the nature of the association between ZD prevalence and critical maternal and child health (MCH) indicators which include four or more antenatal care (ANC) visits, the timing of pregnancy registration, institutional delivery (birth at a health facility), children under five years old who are stunted (height-for-age), and children under five years old who are wasted (weight-for-height). For each of these indicators, data were collated for both the NFHS rounds (NFHS 5 and NFHS 4), and the Pearson correlation coefficient was obtained using the following formula:
r=∑[(xi-x ¯)(yi-ȳ)] ⁄ √[∑(xi-x ¯)^2 ∑(yi-ȳ)^2]
with the coefficient value r signifying the strength and direction of correlation between the two variables. The strength of association as per the correlation coefficient values was interpreted as follows: no association: 0, weak association: (±) 0.1 to less than 0.3, moderate association: (±) 0.3 to less than 0.5, strong association: (±) 0.5 to less than 1, and perfect association: (±) 1.