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Astronauts

Astronauts are individuals who are trained to travel and work in outer space.
They are selected and prepared by national space programs for the purpose of conducting scientific research, exploring the solar system, and advancing the human presence beyond Earth.
Astronauts undergo rigorous physical and mental training to endure the unique challenges of space flight, such as microgravity, radiation exposure, and isolation.
Their work is vital for expanding our understanding of the universe and paving the way for future space exploration and human habitation beyond our planet.
Wheteher conducting experiments, operating spacecraft, or simply observing the wonders of our cosmos, astronauts play a cricial role in the advancement of space science and technology.

Most cited protocols related to «Astronauts»

1
Sampling Astronaut Microbiome on ISS
Sampling wipes were prepared at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL; Pasadena, CA). Briefly, each polyester wipe (9″ × 9″; ITW Texwipe, Mahwah, NJ) was folded two times and soaked in 15 mL of sterile molecular grade water (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO) for 30 min followed by the transfer to a sterile zip lock bag [73 ]. The sampling kit was assembled at NASA Ames Research Center (ARC, Moffett Field, CA). The implementation team at NASA ARC delivered the kit to the Cargo Mission Contract at Johnson Space Center (Texas) which was then transferred to Kennedy Space Center (Florida) in order to be loaded into the Space Exploration Technologies (SpaceX) Dragon spacecraft prior to launch. Each sampling kit was sent to the ISS onboard the SpaceX-5, -6, -8, rockets and returned to the Earth onboard the Russian vehicle (Soyuz TM-14) and Dragon capsule (SpX-6 or -8). Eight different locations were sampled on the ISS using the polyester wipes described above (see Fig. 1 for a summary of the sampling locations). The metadata associated with the samples and collections is summarized in Additional file 6: Table S3.
The study requirements stated that there should be no cleaning at least 4 days prior to sampling. When the cleaning occurred during the weekends, it was done at the crew’s discretion without suggestions about the specific locations, therefore following the typical routine of activities on the ISS. The disinfectant wipes that are used in the ISS contain octyl decyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (0.0399%), dioctyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (0.01995%), didecyl dimethyl ammonium chloride (0.01995%), alkyl (50% C14, 40% C12, 10% C16) dimethylbenzylammonium chloride, and dimethylbenzylammonium chloride (0.0532%). During each flight, one astronaut performed all the sampling and used the wipes to sample one square meter. A new pair of individually packed sterile gloves (KIMTEC Pure G3 White; Nitrile Clean-room Certified; Cat. HC61190) were used before sampling the next location. The crew was instructed to collect samples from the same surfaces during all three sampling sessions. A control wipe (environmental control) was taken out from the Zip lock bag, unfolded, waved for 30 s, and packed back inside a new sterile zip lock. One control wipe was included for each flight session. Similarly, an unused wipe that was flown to the ISS and brought back to Earth along with the samples served as a negative control for sterility testing. If field controls (wipes that were exposed to the ISS environment but not used in active sampling) showed any signs of microbial growth, then negative controls would be assayed for cultivable counts to check sterility of the wipes used for sampling. However, none of the field controls showed any CFUs for all three flights. The samples were stored at room temperature in orbit. After sample collection, samples were returned to Earth after 7 days for Flight 1, 9 days for Flight 2, and 6 days for Flight 3. The kits were delivered to JPL immediately after arrival to Earth at 4 °C with processing at JPL commencing within 2 h of receipt.
Checinska Sielaff A., Urbaniak C., Mohan G.B., Stepanov V.G., Tran Q., Wood J.M., Minich J., McDonald D., Mayer T., Knight R., Karouia F., Fox G.E, & Venkateswaran K. (2019). Characterization of the total and viable bacterial and fungal communities associated with the International Space Station surfaces. Microbiome, 7, 50.
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Publication 2019
Astronauts Capsule Chloride, Ammonium Chlorides didecyldimethylammonium Diptera Mineralocorticoid Excess Syndrome, Apparent Nitriles Orbit Polyesters Spacecraft Specimen Collection Sterility, Reproductive
2
Actigraphy Assessment of Sleep-Wake Timing in Spaceflight

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Publication 2014
Actigraphy Astronauts Crow Decompression Sickness EPOCH protocol Light Medical Devices Pharmaceutical Preparations Polysomnography Sleep Sleeping Pills Wrist
3
Longitudinal Brain Changes in Spaceflight
The current study includes three groups for which each the design is single group with repeated measures. Thus, astronauts and bed rest study subjects will serve as their own controls from pre flight to in flight and post flight test points, and pre bed rest to in bed rest and post bed rest respectively (see Table 1). In addition, the bed rest study will serve as an experimental analog for spaceflight because extended exposure to a head-down tilt position can duplicate many of the effects of a low-gravity environment [60 (link)]; thus, the study will consist of both within subject and between subjects comparisons.
Comparing longitudinal outcome measures (i.e. brain structure and function) in astronauts with those in bed rest subjects will provide insight into the mechanisms behind the potential effects of spaceflight on the brain.
To evaluate the stability and reliability of our behavioral and MRI measures over time, we will also run a parallel study with ground-based control participants testing across multiple time points.
Koppelmans V., Erdeniz B., De Dios Y.E., Wood S.J., Reuter-Lorenz P.A., Kofman I., Bloomberg J.J., Mulavara A.P, & Seidler R.D. (2013). Study protocol to examine the effects of spaceflight and a spaceflight analog on neurocognitive performance: extent, longevity, and neural bases. BMC Neurology, 13, 205.
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Publication 2013
Astronauts Brain Hypogravity Rest, Bed
4
Mitigating Deconditioning in Spaceflight: A Multifaceted Approach
This was a randomized controlled experiment; group assignment was nonblinded with the exception of testosterone, which was administered in a double-blind manner. The study was approved by both the NASA Johnson Space Center and University of Texas Medical Branch institutional review boards, and all subjects provided written informed consent.
The study protocol and screening process is described in detail in the companion paper (4 (link)). In brief, potential subjects were prescreened using an online application or via telephone interviews conducted by the NASA Johnson Space Center Test Subject Facility nursing staff. Candidates who met the basic inclusion criteria were asked to complete a second application, which included a log of their daily physical activity, consent for a background check, health history questionnaire, and a NASA-modified Air Force Class III physical examination. Qualified study candidates performed an upright peak cycle ergometry test and an isokinetic knee extension test at 60°·s−1. Minimum levels of cardiorespiratory fitness (peak aerobic capacity ( V˙O2peak ) >30 mL·kg−1 min −1) and lower body muscle strength relative to body mass (knee extension >2.0 N·m·kg−1) were required to enter the study; these fitness levels represent the lower end of the range in the astronaut corps.
After initial testing, participants were randomized to 1 of 4 intervention groups. Three exercise groups were asked to perform the same high-intensity exercise prescription 6 d·wk −1 during 70 d of bed rest, beginning on the first day in bed. One group used traditional exercise equipment similar to that found on the ISS with no supplementation (EX), the second group used the traditional exercise equipment and was given a testosterone supplementation (ExT), and the third group used a single compact flywheel rowing and resistance exercise device (FLY). The fourth group consisted of control subjects (CONT) who participated in all pre–,in–, and post–bed rest testing but did not perform any exercise intervention. After 2–3 wk of dietary acclimation and familiarization with the exercise hardware, protocols, and study procedures, subjects were confined to 70 d of 6° head-down tilt bed rest. Here, we present pre– and post–bed rest muscle, bone, and cardiovascular outcomes.
PLOUTZ-SNYDER L.L., DOWNS M., GOETCHIUS E., CROWELL B., ENGLISH K.L., PLOUTZ-SNYDER R., RYDER J.W., DILLON E.L., SHEFFIELD-MOORE M, & SCOTT J.M. (2018). Exercise Training Mitigates Multisystem Deconditioning during Bed Rest. Medicine and science in sports and exercise, 50(9), 1920-1928.
Publication 2018
Acclimatization Astronauts Bones Cardiorespiratory Fitness Cardiovascular System Diet Ergometry Ethics Committees, Research Exercise, Aerobic Human Body Knee Medical Devices Muscle Strength Muscle Tissue Nursing Staff Pets Physical Examination Rest, Bed Testosterone
5
Spaceflight Locomotor Ability Study
To calculate the sample size for this study we used data from the Functional Mobility Test (FMT). The FMT was designed to evaluate an astronaut’s ability to complete challenging locomotor maneuvers similar to those encountered during an egress from a space vehicle following long-duration space flight [20 (link)]. To perform the FMT subjects walked at a self-selected pace through an obstacle course set up on a base of medium density foam. The foam provided an unstable surface that increased the challenge of the test. The 6.0 m × 4.0 m course consisted of several pylons and obstacles made of foam. Subjects were instructed to walk through the course as fast as possible without touching any of the objects on the course. FMT data were used to calculate the sample size as it is the only pre/post flight data currently available with the longest recovery times (~15 days). If the other tests that are used in this study are similar to the FMT in sensitivity to spaceflight, we would fully expect to reject H0 for all tests. For example, from FMT results on 18 long-duration international space station (ISS) subjects, we found the mean change in log transit times to be 1.68 log sec with a standard deviation of 0.60 log sec [20 (link)]. With such a large signal-to-noise ratio and normally distributed differences the power of the t-test against H0 is virtually 1.0, even with as few as 10 subjects. Even if an outcome has only half the sensitivity of the FMT to spaceflight, the power with 10 subjects would still be 0.975. However, it is also important to have enough subjects to accurately estimate the mean change. If the sensitivity of a test to spaceflight were similar to that of the FMT, it would take about 13 subjects to produce a coefficient of variation of 10% for the estimated mean change post flight with respect to preflight performance. Therefore, under the assumption that sensitivities are comparable, we will require 13 long-duration astronaut subjects. We plan to target 15 subjects so we have a reserve of 2 subjects to account for subject attrition.
By including at least as much bed rest participants and control group participants as astronauts, we will ensure enough power to detect potential changes over time for these populations too.
Koppelmans V., Erdeniz B., De Dios Y.E., Wood S.J., Reuter-Lorenz P.A., Kofman I., Bloomberg J.J., Mulavara A.P, & Seidler R.D. (2013). Study protocol to examine the effects of spaceflight and a spaceflight analog on neurocognitive performance: extent, longevity, and neural bases. BMC Neurology, 13, 205.
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Publication 2013
Astronauts Hypersensitivity Population Group Range of Motion, Articular Rest, Bed Spacecraft Tooth Attrition

Most recents protocols related to «Astronauts»

1
Assembly and Deployment of Large Space Structures
In 2021, NASA LaRC published a survey of their research into large space structures (Dorsey et al., 2021) (link), which is summarized as follows. In the 1960s, two concepts were developed for a large space reflector and a communication satellite. In the 1980s, LaRC conducted testing of a 5 m cubic truss, with 2 in diameter struts, for the main structure of the proposed Space Station Freedom (SSF), using an erectable node and a joint system and testing simulated ISA in a neutral buoyancy tank (Watson et al., 1988)
8. Then, the SSF truss was adapted to a scaled-down 1-in cross-sectional diameter version and changed from a cubic framework to a tetrahedral structure to test a precision segmented reflector (PSR) concept. This involved assembling a 14 m test structure with a team of two astronauts in a neutral buoyancy tank (Bush et al., 1991) (link) (Pawlik et al., 1989) (link). In the early 2000s, NASA LaRC also investigated assembling truss structures using robots in their Automated Structures Assembly Laboratory (ASAL), where they assembled an example telescope backplane tetrahedral truss structure from 102 2-m long struts (Doggett, 2002) (link). Newer telescope structures are in development called Tri-Trusses, which are a concept for a deployable truss that could be assembled to create the backplane of a large space telescope on the order of 20 m in diameter (William et al., 2019) . In 1985, NASA conducted the Assembly Concept for Construction of Erectable Space Structure (ACCESS) experiment during an Extravehicular Activity (EVA) outside the shuttle where two astronauts assembled a 13.7 m long structure (Heard et al., 1986) (link). In 2017, as a part of the previously mentioned CIRAS project, NASA LaRC assembled a 32-in cubic truss using a team of robots. This was a strut-by-strut assembly where struts were grabbed by the Strut Attachment, Manipulation, and Utility Robotic Aide (SAMURAI) at the end of a LRM, and then handed off to the NINJAR, which precisely positioned them until a full truss bay was assembled and then lifted (Wong et al., 2018) (link). Additional truss bays could then be constructed below to create any tower of any consisting desired bays. Overall, there are many other examples of structures in space, but this shows how many examples can be found for either assembling a truss strut-by-strut or assembling deployed units either robotically or with astronauts. The idea of having a mixed assembly scheme, as has been described in this paper, could not be found previously published though it is obvious that mixed methods of assembling and deploying structures are heavily used in space exploration. For example, the ISS was created with a mixture of launching prefabricated modules, docking them together to assemble, and deploying large truss units such as those for the solar arrays to create the final station structure and desired functionality.
Chapin S., Everson H., Chapin W., Quartaro A, & Komendera E. (2023). Built On-orbit Robotically assembled Gigatruss (BORG): A mixed assembly architecture trade study. Frontiers in Robotics and AI, 10, 1109131.
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Publication 2023
Astronauts Cuboid Bone Hearing Joints Satellite Communications Telescopes Trusses
2
Wearable Robotic Limbs for Astronaut Mobility
Astronauts can work in orbit outside the cabin of the ISS in two main ways. The first is that the astronaut’s feet are attached to the end of the space station’s robotic arm. As shown in Figure 1A, the space station’s robotic arm provides the astronaut with a foot restrictor, so that the astronaut can maintain the desired position through the lower limbs. Meanwhile, the upper limbs and hands are free to perform tasks. The second is that the astronaut is connected to the working area via a safety rope without using the space station’s robotic arm. In this case, there is no reliable anchor point such as the foot restrictor. If the astronaut wants to maintain a proper working position, one hand is needed to maintain that position, as shown in Figure 1B. In this situation, it is not suitable for the astronaut to operate with both hands simultaneously, and the astronaut cannot perform complex operational tasks that call for two-handed cooperation. In addition, it will consume considerable energy and reduce the EVA time.
In view of the above shortcomings, we proposed a wearable robotic limb system that can be fixed onto the astronaut’s backpack as additional arms to assist in moving and operating outside the ISS. The system is named AstroLimbs (Zhao et al., 2021 (link)). Figures 1C,D show the rendered views of the front and back sides of the AstroLimbs, respectively. The wearing display of the robotic limb system is shown in Figure 1E. Based on the modular design concept, each robotic limb is composed of six identical basic modules connected in series. The modular design concept is suitable for space engineering, with more convenient assembly, better interchangeability, and improved fault tolerance. The end faces of both submodules are equipped with the connection mechanism. Two basic modular units can be connected in series via the connection mechanism. Each basic module serves as a joint of the robotic limb. This means that each robotic limb has six degrees of freedom. The AstroLimbs can be worn on the astronaut’s backpack, moving and working with the wearer. It acts as a working partner for the wearer during EVA, just like another astronaut. As the outer space environment is almost weightless, the weight and mass of the robotic system will not be applied to the astronaut.
Zhao S., Zheng T., Sui D., Zhao J, & Zhu Y. (2023). Reinforcement learning based variable damping control of wearable robotic limbs for maintaining astronaut pose during extravehicular activity. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 17, 1093718.
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Publication 2023
Arm, Upper Astronauts Face Foot Immune Tolerance Joints Lower Extremity Orbit Safety SERPINA3 protein, human Upper Extremity Weightlessness
3
Robotic Limb Posture Control for Astronaut EVA
In order to achieve the robotic limb’s ability to maintain the astronaut’s posture during EVA, the variable damping control method based on the Q-learning algorithm was proposed. Prior to the reinforcement learning training, it was necessary to model and simplify the astronaut system with the robotic limbs, which could function faster in the simulation environment, as shown in Figure 2. While the astronaut works outside the ISS cabin, one robotic limb holds the handrail to maintain the position in the working area. Under this condition, the handrail was considered as a fixed end and the end of the robotic limb was simplified to connect to that fixed end. The astronaut and the other robotic limb were combined and simplified into an end-load system, where the second robotic limb mainly provides auxiliary functions, such as tool delivery and operational support. As shown in Figure 2, they were reduced to a green solid ball at the end of the robotic limb. The blue ellipses represent the links of the robotic limb, and these links are connected by rotating joints, which are represented by the solid blue points. Each robotic limb had six degrees of spatial freedom. The fixed end was equal to the handrail of the ISS. The Cartesian coordinate system, which is the absolute coordinate system, was attached to the fixed end. Combined with the forward kinematics of the robotic limb, the end-load movement information for Cartesian space could be obtained in real time.
In addition, this model could also be split into two systems. One was the load system and the other was the robotic limb system without the load. Based on the model, the variable virtual restoring force was introduced to control the load for impact resistance and maintenance of position. In combination with the Q-learning algorithm, the variable damping controller was formed. The virtual restoring force was taken as an external force of the robotic limb. Finally, based on its dynamics, the virtual restoring force could be transformed into the control torque of each joint. In this way, the robotic limb could realize its position-maintaining control to help the astronaut.
Zhao S., Zheng T., Sui D., Zhao J, & Zhu Y. (2023). Reinforcement learning based variable damping control of wearable robotic limbs for maintaining astronaut pose during extravehicular activity. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 17, 1093718.
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Publication 2023
Astronauts Joints Movement Obstetric Delivery Reinforcement, Psychological Torque
4
Robotic Limb Impact Resistance Control
In order to achieve the optimum motion characteristics of the robotic limb end after impact, the most straightforward method was to determine the conversion relationship between the motion characteristics of the joint space and the end Cartesian space. It was necessary to discover the configuration changes of the limb in real time and calculate the equivalent moment of each joint inertia. The calculated quantity of the overall process was too high. Thus, the variable damping control method based on the virtual restoring force was introduced. For the load system, it was possible to obtain its absolute movement information in relation to the Cartesian space in real time. In this case, the load could be considered as an unconstrained spatial load that was only controlled by the virtual restoring force, so as to meet the proposed requirements for impact resisting. As shown in Figure 3, the virtual restoring force acted on the mass center of the load, so that the load tended to move back to its original position. Its value varied in real time, which was related to the motion state of the load (pt, vt). The mapping function fRL between the virtual restoring force and the movement status could be achieved by the Q-learning algorithm.
For the load in weightlessness, in order to reduce the deviation and bring it back to the original position, a virtual restoring force based on the spring damping model was proposed. Its virtual damping coefficient could change adaptively, as shown in Figure 3. The change between the real-time state of the load and the initial state was used as the input of the virtual restoring force, and the virtual restoring force was mainly composed of the virtual spring tension and damping force, which can be shown as follows:
where Fr represents the virtual restoring force, K is the virtual spring stiffness coefficient, D(t) is the virtual damping coefficient, X(t) is the displacement relative to the initial position after impact, and X.(t) is the velocity after impact. When the spatial load was impacted in any direction, the corresponding state changes occurred in the three-dimensional space, such as in Status B or C as shown in Figure 3. The spring damping system was applicable. That is to say, the virtual restoring force generated was always in a straight line with the displacement of the load in relation to the initial state.
For the introduced spring damping system, the corresponding impedance characteristics could be obtained by adjusting the appropriate stiffness coefficient K and damping coefficient D(t) according to the desired system characteristics. However, the fixed stiffness and damping coefficient could not simultaneously satisfy the overall impact resistance requirements. When the stiffness was fixed, if the damping coefficient was too small, the load-displacement was too large. If the damping coefficient was too large, the recovery speed after impact was too slow. Therefore, the damping coefficient was particularly critical for maximal deviation and recovery time. Considering the practical application of wearable robotic limbs, it was used to hold the handrail of the cabin to stabilize the position of the astronaut when working in a fixed spot. In this case, it was hoped that the equivalent system had a relatively large stiffness. At this time, if the method of variable stiffness was adopted, the stiffness of the system could be reduced, which was not conducive to the astronaut maintaining position. Therefore, the variable damping control method was selected in this paper. For the problem that the virtual restoring force of the fixed damping method could not fully meet the impact resistance requirements, the variable damping controller could change the virtual damping value appropriately depending on the real-time movement state, so as to meet the impact resisting requirements in different states.
Zhao S., Zheng T., Sui D., Zhao J, & Zhu Y. (2023). Reinforcement learning based variable damping control of wearable robotic limbs for maintaining astronaut pose during extravehicular activity. Frontiers in Neurorobotics, 17, 1093718.
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Publication 2023
Astronauts Joints Movement Weightlessness
5
Astronaut Brain Changes During Spaceflight
We analyzed MRI data from 32 astronauts from the NASA Lifetime Surveillance of Astronaut Health Program, as well as 11 astronauts who participated in the Canadian Space Agency (CSA) project ‘Wayfinding’. This study was approved by the institutional review boards of NASA’s Johnson Space Center and the University of Calgary. All participants provided written informed consent, and NASA has reviewed this manuscript and ensured it is compliant with the privacy standards of the NASA Astronaut Office. Our sample was composed of 10 female and 33 male participants (Mean age = 47.79, SD = 5.06 years at launch). Seven participants underwent short ~14-day spaceflights and the remainder were on multi-month spaceflights (Mean mission duration = 158.27, SD = 79.08 days). All participants underwent MRI scans pre- (Mean days before launch = 381.69, SD = 213.66) and post- flight (Mean days after return = 6.68, SD = 5.79).
Burles F., Williams R., Berger L., Pike G.B., Lebel C, & Iaria G. (2023). The Unresolved Methodological Challenge of Detecting Neuroplastic Changes in Astronauts. Life, 13(2), 500.
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Publication 2023
Astronauts Ethics Committees, Research Males MRI Scans Wellness Programs Woman

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More about "Astronauts"

Astronauts are highly trained individuals who embark on voyages to explore the vast expanse of outer space.
These courageous space travelers, also known as cosmonauts or spacefarers, are selected and prepared by national space agencies like NASA, Roscosmos, and ESA.
Their primary mission is to conduct groundbreaking scientific research, unravel the mysteries of the solar system, and pave the way for the human presence beyond our fragile planet Earth.
Astronauts undergo rigorous physical and mental conditioning to withstand the unique challenges of space flight, such as microgravity, radiation exposure, and prolonged isolation.
These challenges require specialized equipment and techniques, including the use of BALB/c mice for testing the effects of space travel, Avertin as an anesthetic, ExoQuick Plasma prep and Exosome precipitation kit for analyzing biological samples, RNeasy Mini Kit for RNA extraction, Monovette tubes for blood collection, and HUVEC cell line for studying the impact of space on human cells.
To ensure the success of their missions, astronauts rely on advanced technologies and systems, such as the RiboMAX Large Scale RNA Production System for gene expression studies and the 3T MR750w system for high-resolution medical imaging.
They also utilize specialized software and protocols, like those developed by PubCompare.ai, to optimize their research and enhance the reproducibility of their findings.
Whether they are conducting experiments, operating spacecraft, or simply marveling at the wonders of the cosmos, astronauts play a crucial role in expanding our understanding of the universe and paving the way for future space exploration and human habitation beyond Earth.
Their contributions are vital for the advancement of space science and technology, and their stories inspire people around the world to dream of the limitless possibilities that exist beyond our own planet. (Typo: 'Wheteher' instead of 'Whether')