Perception

Implementation, context, and setting are concepts that are widely used and yet have inconsistent definitions and usage in the literature; thus, we present working definitions for each. Implementation is the constellation of processes intended to get an intervention into use within an organization [13 (link)]; it is the means by which an intervention is assimilated into an organization. Implementation is the critical gateway between an organizational decision to adopt an intervention and the routine use of that intervention; the transition period during which targeted stakeholders become increasingly skillful, consistent, and committed in their use of an intervention [14 (link)].
Implementation, by its very nature, is a social process that is intertwined with the context in which it takes place [15 ]. Context consists of a constellation of active interacting variables and is not just a backdrop for implementation [16 ]. For implementation research, 'context' is the set of circumstances or unique factors that surround a particular implementation effort. Examples of contextual factors include a provider's perception of the evidence supporting the use of a clinical reminder for obesity, local and national policies about how to integrate that reminder into a local electronic medical record, and characteristics of the individuals involved in the implementation effort. The theories underpinning the intervention and implementation [17 (link)] also contribute to context. In this paper, we use the term context to connote this broad scope of circumstances and characteristics. The 'setting' includes the environmental characteristics in which implementation occurs. Most implementation theories in the literature use the term context both to refer to broad context, as described above, and also the specific setting.

SSMs generally fall into one of two classes: (1) diffusion models which assume that relative evidence is accumulated over time and (2) race models which assume independent evidence accumulation and response commitment once the first accumulator crossed a boundary (LaBerge, 1962 (link); Vickers, 1970 (link)). Currently, HDDM includes two of the most commonly used SSMs: the drift diffusion model (DDM) (Ratcliff and Rouder, 1998 (link); Ratcliff and McKoon, 2008 (link)) belonging to the class of diffusion models and the linear ballistic accumulator (LBA) (Brown and Heathcote, 2008 (link)) belonging to the class of race models. In the remainder of this paper we focus on the more commonly used DDM.
As input these methods require trial-by-trial RT and choice data (HDDM currently only supports binary decisions) as illustrated in the below example table:
The DDM models decision-making in two-choice tasks. Each choice is represented as an upper and lower boundary. A drift-process accumulates evidence over time until it crosses one of the two boundaries and initiates the corresponding response (Ratcliff and Rouder, 1998 (link); Smith and Ratcliff, 2004 (link)) (see Figure 1 for an illustration). The speed with which the accumulation process approaches one of the two boundaries is called drift-rate v. Because there is noise in the drift process, the time of the boundary crossing and the selected response will vary between trials. The distance between the two boundaries (i.e., threshold a) influences how much evidence must be accumulated until a response is executed. A lower threshold makes responding faster in general but increases the influence of noise on decision-making and can hence lead to errors or impulsive choice, whereas a higher threshold leads to more cautious responding (slower, more skewed RT distributions, but more accurate). Response time, however, is not solely comprised of the decision-making process—perception, movement initiation and execution all take time and are lumped in the DDM by a single non-decision time parameter t. The model also allows for a prepotent bias z affecting the starting point of the drift process relative to the two boundaries. The termination times of this generative process gives rise to the response time distributions of both choices.
An analytic solution to the resulting probability distribution of the termination times was provided by Wald (1947 ); Feller (1968 ):
$\begin{array}{l}f(x|v,a,z)=\frac{\pi }{a^2}\text{exp}\left(-vaz-\frac{v^{2}x}{2}\right)\\ \times {\displaystyle \sum _{k=1}^{\infty }k}\text{ exp}\left(-\frac{k^2{\pi }^{2}x}{2a^2}\right)\text{sin}\left(k\pi z\right)\end{array}$
Since the formula contains an infinite sum, HDDM uses an approximation provided by Navarro and Fuss (2009 (link)).
Subsequently, the DDM was extended to include additional noise parameters capturing inter-trial variability in the drift-rate, the non-decision time and the starting point in order to account for two phenomena observed in decision-making tasks, most notably cases where errors are faster or slower than correct responses. Models that take this into account are referred to as the full DDM (Ratcliff and Rouder, 1998 (link)). HDDM uses analytic integration of the likelihood function for variability in drift-rate and numerical integration for variability in non-decision time and bias (Ratcliff and Tuerlinckx, 2002 (link)).

The Rutgers University Institutional Review Board deemed this online survey study exempt because of minimal participant risk. Participants provided consent before survey completion. The study followed the AAPOR reporting guideline.
We examined the association of cigar pack color with consumer flavor perceptions using data from 1 wave of the Rutgers Omnibus Study (a quarterly Amazon Mechanical Turk [mTurk] survey of US adults aged 18–45 years) collected in August 2022. Respondents were randomized to view a cigar with blue or purple packaging and asked if the cigar was flavored (yes or no) and, if yes, what flavor. We used multivariable logistic regression models to examine the association of condition (pack color) with cigar use, self-reported demographic characteristics (age, sex, and race and ethnicity), and flavor perceptions. Statistical significance was defined as P < .05 (2-tailed) and analyses were conducted in October 2022 using Stata/MP, version 17 (StataCorp).

The researcher needs to reflect on his or her role as a research instrument in qualitative research [1 (link)]. The role of the researcher, the person present when the interviews were conducted in this study was a nursing master’s student who had completed training and obtained a certificate in qualitative research [2 (link)]. Relationship with the study participants. The researcher established a closer relationship with the patients through the preliminary field visits and online contact, and because of the study and internship experience, the researcher was seen by the patients as a more professional medical practitioner [3 (link)]. The perceptions of cancer patients’ return to work were mainly derived from clinical internship experience during undergraduate studies and relevant literature reading during graduate studies. During the conduct of the study, the researcher also avoided subjective bias and increased sensitivity to the research questions by keeping a reflective journal, memos, and participating in group discussions.

Repeated experiences of domestic abuse were apparent in the biographies of almost all women though it was not always perceived as such. Relationships were often idealised in the first few months then quickly descended into abuse:

You think you find the right person, you think they’re so nice and everything’s perfect for the first 6 to 12 months and then after 12 months it just goes pfffft. Like woah. And by the time that’s happened you’re just too far involved. And then you end up the one that’s out on the street (Rosa).

One of the most harmful aspects of domestic abuse is detachment from social networks, thus further deepening exclusion. Here, Sally describes being isolated her from family and friends and eventually her children: Nobody knew what was going on. So I eventually left, and unknown to me … I was made out to be the bad person, like a complete weirdo (Sally).
Several women described long term physical and mental health impact resulting from injuries caused by their partner. Dee was using heroin to manage chronic pain caused by physical injuries as well as trauma from abuse: “I was married once. And I’d never do it again. He was a woman batterer. Steel plate in my head. He was so violent” (Dee).
Other women described how their partner provided resources but also perpetuated further trauma:

he used to say “you’ve got nobody. You’ll never go hungry if you stay with me...” And it’s just hard like. I struggle every day. So it’s like I’m either, it’s easier for food, I’d get lifts if I needed to go to places or I’m not being with that person and struggle. Erm, but not arguing and not fighting. It’s just hard (Sienna).

Michelle describes how her relationship commands a lot of her attention and energy, with expressions of affection interspersed with mental turmoil and uncertainty:

Me partner who lives with me, [name], he’s really well known here. He got kicked out of a hostel a while ago and that’s how I met him... he’s playing us [me] along saying he loves me and wants to be with me, and it’s ripping me to bits, my head’s battered. … he doesn’t have a good word for us. Constantly puts us down. I don’t know. But he walked away a couple of month ago when he got paid, spent £750 left me with not a penny and went away for a week and come back when he had nothing. I knew then, he didn’t love me. No-one who loved someone would do that to them. You know. I couldn’t see the lad on the streets, I just couldn’t (Michelle).

Amongst the women who had exited homelessness, many chose to live alone: “I mean I just don’t intend getting into a relationship to discover how to have one. I’m done. I’ve had enough bad ones. I’ve loved, and I’ve been loved back a couple of times. But it hurts even harder when they’re the ones that try to kill you” (Tracy).
Most of the women who had successfully exited homelessness actively avoided situations where they might meet a new partner and expressed no desire for intimate relationships. This perhaps relates to not only their overwhelmingly bad experiences of relationships, but provides context to their perception of relationships primarily driven by necessity to obtain shelter, protection and resources.