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Regional Cerebral Blood Flow

Regional Cerebral Blood Flow (rCBF) refers to the measurement and analysis of blood flow within specific regions of the brain.
This physiological parameter provides insights into brain function and metabolism, and is a key indicator of neurological health and disease. rCBF research utilizes various imaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), to quantify blood perfusion in the brain.
By studying rCBF, researchers can investigate brain activity, identify areas of altered perfusion in neurological disorders, and advance our understating of cerebrovascular regulation.
This MeSH term encompasses the protocols, methods, and technologies used to assess rCBF, enabling more effective and reproducible research in this important field of neuroscience.
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Most cited protocols related to «Regional Cerebral Blood Flow»

1
Transient Focal Ischemia in Mice
Cited 15 times
All animal experiments were approved by the University of Pittsburgh Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and performed in accordance with the principles outlined in the National Institutes of Health Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Wild-type (WT) or IL-4 knockout (KO) male C57/BL6 mice (8–10w, 25–30 g body weight; Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Maine, USA) were randomly assigned to sham or cerebral ischemia groups using a lottery drawing box. Transient focal ischemia was induced by MCAO for 60 minutes as previously described.2 Sham-operated animals underwent anesthesia and exposure of the arteries without MCAO induction. Rectal temperature was maintained at 37.0°C±0.5°C during and after surgery with a temperature-controlled heating pad. Physiological parameters were maintained within normal ranges. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was monitored in all stroke animals using laser Doppler flowmetry. Animals that died or failed to show at least 70% rCBF reduction were excluded from further analyses. Mice in both genotypes were subjected to repeated measurements of CBF before ischemia, 5 min after tMCAO, and 5 min after reperfusion using a laser speckle contrast imager (LDF, PeriFlux System 5000, Perimed). In all experiments, the tMCAO or sham surgeries were performed by an investigator blinded to genotype.
Liu X., Liu J., Zhao S., Zhang H., Cai W., Cai M., Ji X., Leak R.K., Gao Y., Chen J, & Hu X. (2016). Interleukin-4 is Essential for Microglia/Macrophage M2 Polarization and Long-term Recovery after Cerebral Ischemia. Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation, 47(2), 498-504.
Publication 2015
Anesthesia Animals Animals, Laboratory Arteries Body Weight Cerebral Ischemia Cerebrovascular Accident Genotype Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees Ischemia Laser-Doppler Flowmetry Males Mice, House Mice, Knockout Operative Surgical Procedures physiology Rectum Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Reperfusion Transients
2
Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion in Mice
Cited 12 times
Male mice, 10 to 12 weeks old (25 – 30g), were anesthetized with 2% isoflurane in 70% air and balanced O2 using a face mask. Middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) was induced by the insertion of a silicone-coated 6-0 monofilament (Doccol Corp, Redlands, CA) into the MCA internal carotid artery for 1 hr followed by reperfusion, as described17 (link). Rectal temperature was maintained at 37±0.5 °C with a heating pad (Harvard Apparatus, Holliston, MA). Heart rate, oxygen saturation, and respiratory rate were monitored continuously (STARR Life Sciences Corp, Allison Park, PA). Animals with no observable deficits immediately after ischemia, those that died within 48 hrs, and those with subarachnoid hemorrhage at the time of death were excluded from analysis. Brains were sectioned coronally after 48 hrs into 4 slices and stained in 2% 2,3,5-triphenyletrazolium chloride (TTC). Infarct size was analyzed, normalized blindly to the non-ischemic hemisphere and expressed as a percentage and corrected for edema using the NIH Image program (Image J 1.37v). Neurological deficit scores were evaluated at 48 hrs according to a neurological grading score,18 (link) from 0 ( no observable neurological deficit) to 4 (unable to walk spontaneously and a depressed level of consciousness). The evaluator was blinded to experimental treatments. In separate animals, regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) was monitored through a microtip fiber optic probe (diameter 0.5 mm) connected through a Master Probe to a laser Doppler computerized main unit (PerFlux 5000, Perimed AB, Stockholm, Sweden). A small incision was made at the coordinate 1 mm caudal to the bregma and 3.3 mm lateral to the midline in the ischemic hemisphere to expose the skull, and the laser Doppler probe was attached to the exposed skull. CBF was measured 10 min before ischemia onset, during (30 min after stroke onset) ischemia and 5 min after reperfusion. All data were normalized to the values of CBF measured before stroke in wild type animals and expressed as relative ratios.
Gu L., Xiong X., Zhang H., Xu B., Steinberg G.K, & Zhao H. (2012). Distinctive effects of T cell subsets in neuronal injury induced by co-cultured splenocytes in vitro and by in vivo stroke in mice. Stroke; a journal of cerebral circulation, 43(7), 1941-1946.
Publication 2012
Animals Animals, Wild Brain Cerebrovascular Accident Chlorides Cranium Edema Face Infarction Internal Carotid Arteries Ischemia Isoflurane Males Mice, Laboratory Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Oxygen Saturation Rate, Heart Rectum Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Reperfusion Respiratory Rate Silicones Subarachnoid Hemorrhage Therapies, Investigational
3
Transient Focal Cerebral Ischemia Model
Cited 11 times
tFCI was induced in adult male mice (8–10 weeks old, 25–30 g) by intraluminal occlusion of the left middle cerebral artery (MCA) for 60 min60 (link). Experimental procedures were performed following criteria derived from Stroke Therapy Academic Industry Roundtable group guidelines for preclinical evaluation of stroke therapeutics61 (link). Briefly, mice were anaesthetized with 3% isoflurane in 67:30% N2O/O2 until they were unresponsive to the tail pinch test. Mice were then fitted with a nose cone blowing 1.5% isoflurane for anaesthesia maintenance. A 8-0 monofilament with silicon-coated tip was introduced into the common carotid artery, advanced to the origin of the MCA and left in place for 60 min. Rectal temperature was maintained at 37.0±0.5 °C during surgery through a temperature-controlled heating pad. Mean arterial blood pressure was monitored during surgery by a tail cuff, and arterial blood gas was analysed 15 min after the onset of ischaemia. Regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) was measured using laser Doppler flowmetry. Alternatively, cortical CBF was monitored using two-dimensional laser speckle techniques (Supplementary Methods). Animals that did not show a CBF reduction of at least 75% of baseline level or died after ischaemia induction (<10%) were excluded from further experimentation. Sham-operated animals underwent the same anaesthesia and surgical procedures, with the exception of MCA occlusion. For treatment with the MMP inhibitor GM6001, animals were randomly assigned to vehicle or GM6001 groups immediately after surgery. GM6001 was administrated through the tail vein (16 μg kg−1) at the onset of reperfusion. Treatments and all outcome assessments were performed by investigators blinded to experimental group assignments.
Shi Y., Zhang L., Pu H., Mao L., Hu X., Jiang X., Xu N., Stetler R.A., Zhang F., Liu X., Leak R.K., Keep R.F., Ji X, & Chen J. (2016). Rapid endothelial cytoskeletal reorganization enables early blood–brain barrier disruption and long-term ischaemic reperfusion brain injury. Nature Communications, 7, 10523.
Publication 2016
Adult Anesthesia Animals Arteries Cerebrovascular Accident Cerebrovascular Circulation Common Carotid Artery Cortex, Cerebral GM 6001 Group Therapy Ischemia Isoflurane Laser-Doppler Flowmetry Males Matrix Metalloproteinase Inhibitors Mice, House Middle Cerebral Artery Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Nose Operative Surgical Procedures Rectum Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Reperfusion Retinal Cone Silicon Tail Veins
4
Focal Cerebral Ischemia in Mice
Cited 10 times
All animal experiments were approved by the University of Pittsburgh Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee and carried out in accordance with the NIH Guide for the Care and Use of Laboratory Animals. Male 2- to 3-month-old C57/B6 mice were anesthetized with 1.5% isoflurane in a 30% O2/68.5% N2O mixture under spontaneous breathing. Focal cerebral ischemia was produced by intraluminal occlusion of the left middle cerebral artery (MCAO) as described previously (Cao et al., 2002 (link)). Rectal temperature was controlled at ~37.0°C throughout experiment via a temperature-regulated heating pad. Arterial blood pressure was monitored through a tail cuff (XBP1000 Systems, Kent Scientific Corporation, Torrington, CT), and arterial blood gas was analyzed 15 min after induction of ischemia and 15 min after reperfusion. The animals underwent MCA occlusion for 60 min and then reperfusion for the indicated duration. After recovering from anesthesia, the animals were maintained in an air-conditioned room at 20°C. In all experiments, the surgeon was blinded to the genotypes of mice.
To confirm the induction of ischemia and successful reperfusion, changes in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) before, during and after MCA occlusion were evaluated in animals using laser-Doppler flowmetry (Cao et al., 2002 (link)). In two groups of mice (wild-type or Tg-Hsp27H), quantitative rCBF measurement was performed at 30 min after the onset of MCA occlusion using [14C]-iodoantipyrine autoradiography as described previously (Sawada et al., 2000 (link)).
Stetler R.A., Cao G., Gao Y., Zhang F., Wang S., Weng Z., Vosler P., Zhang L., Signore A., Graham S.H, & Chen J. (2008). Hsp27 Protects against Ischemic Brain Injury via Attenuation of a Novel Stress-Response Cascade Upstream of Mitochondrial Cell Death Signaling. The Journal of Neuroscience, 28(49), 13038-13055.
Publication 2008
Anesthesia Animals Animals, Laboratory Arteries Autoradiography Cerebral Ischemia Dental Occlusion Genotype Institutional Animal Care and Use Committees iodoantipyrine Ischemia Isoflurane Laser-Doppler Flowmetry Males Mice, House Middle Cerebral Artery Occlusion Rectum Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Reperfusion Surgeons Tail
5
Measuring Hemodynamic Responses with fNIRS
Cited 6 times
In this study, we adopted HbO signals as the indicator of hemodynamic response since HbO is more sensitive to regional cerebral blood flow than Hb (Hoshi, Kobayashi, & Tamura, 2001; Strangman, Culver, Thompson, & Boas, 2002). The HomER2 toolbox in Matlab 2014a (The MathWorks Inc.) was used for offline data preprocessing (Huppert, Diamond, Franceschini, & Boas, 2009). After the raw intensity data were converted to optical density changes, the spline interpolation algorithm was used to correct motion artifacts caused by head movement during data acquisition. Then, a bandpass filter between 0.01 and 0.2 Hz was applied to remove the effect of physiological noises and drifts. Finally, the optical density was converted to ΔHbO on the basis of the modified Beer‐Lambert law. We cut a temporal window from −5 to 40 s relative to the onset of blocks (t = 0 s) for averaging. Since around five seconds is needed for HbO to increase from baseline to a stable concentration change, the time course of HbO from 5 to 30 s was averaged to obtain the mean ΔHbO induced by the conditions (Aarabi, Osharina, & Wallois, 2017).
Bai Z., Fong K.N., Zhang J, & Hu Z. (2019). Cortical mapping of mirror visual feedback training for unilateral upper extremity: A functional near‐infrared spectroscopy study. Brain and Behavior, 10(1), e01489.
Publication 2019
Beer Boa Diamond Head Movements Hemodynamics Neoplasm Metastasis physiology Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Vision

Most recents protocols related to «Regional Cerebral Blood Flow»

1
Cerebral Hemodynamics and Cognition in Depression
We used one way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to analyze continuous variables include demographic characteristics (age and education level), clinical variables (illness duration, past depressive episodes, HAMD score) and VFT performance (the correct number of items, accuracy) among the three groups. As to categorical variables (gender) among groups, we used contingency table analysis. ANOVA was also used to analyze oxy-Hb changes differences among the three groups.
The value of oxy-Hb changes (calculated by subtracting the mean oxy-Hb of the task period from that mean oxy-Hb of the pre-task period), as a much reliable statistical indicator [28 (link),29 (link)], stronger correlation with blood oxygenation level-dependent signal measured by functional MRI [30 (link)] and better signal to noise ratio than deoxy-Hb change [31 (link)], is selected to directly reflect regional cerebral blood flow changes and cognitive activation. For further post hoc test, we took Bonferroni test. Homogeneity of variance was tested to compare the distribution shape of the different groups. Benjamini–Hochberg’s procedure was adopted for multiple comparisons analyses of 45-channel testing correction. The q value of the maximum false discovery rate (FDR) was set at 0.2 so that the false positive rate was no higher 20% on average (FDR-corrected).
To examine the relationships between oxy-Hb changes in each channel and clinical variables, Spearman’s rank correlation coefficients were calculated for TRD patients and non-TRD patients.
All statistical analyses were performed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences for Windows (SPSS version 22.0; IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA).
Sun J.J., Shen C.Y., Liu X.M, & Liu P.Z. (2023). Abnormal Prefrontal Brain Activation During a Verbal Fluency Task in Treatment-Resistant Depression Using Near-Infrared Spectroscopy. Psychiatry Investigation, 20(2), 84-92.
Publication 2023
BLOOD Cell Respiration Cognition fMRI Gender oxytocin, 1-desamino-(O-Et-Tyr)(2)- Patients Regional Cerebral Blood Flow
2
Transient Cerebral Ischemia in Mice
Focal brain ischemia was induced by transient intraluminal MCAO using a monofilament. Animals were first anesthetized with 2.5% avertin (20 µl/g, i.p.). A midline ventral neck skin incision was made, the temporal muscle was retracted, and the left carotid artery was exposed and isolated. After the common carotid artery and the external carotid artery were ligated, a silicone-coated monofilament (Doccol, Sharon, MA, USA) was inserted into the left internal carotid artery through an incision in the common carotid artery until it reached the origin of the left MCA where mild resistance was encountered (9–10 mm). One hour after blocking the MCA, the monofilament was withdrawn to restore the blood flow, and the skin was sutured. Transcranial laser-Doppler flowmetry (PeriMed) was utilized to monitor the regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) and ensure successful ischemia and reperfusion. MCA occlusion was determined by a reduction of more than 70% in CBF compared to that at baseline. The body temperature of each mouse was maintained at 37 °C ± 0.5 °C with an electric blanket pad throughout the procedure. No significant differences were noted between Vdr-cKO and control mice in regional CBF at baseline, during ischemia and reperfusion (Additional file 1: Fig. S2G, H), as well as in body temperature and blood pressure during MCAO or sham procedure. Mice were returned to the cages after regaining consciousness.
Cui P., Lu W., Wang J., Wang F., Zhang X., Hou X., Xu F., Liang Y., Chai G, & Hao J. (2023). Microglia/macrophages require vitamin D signaling to restrain neuroinflammation and brain injury in a murine ischemic stroke model. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 20, 63.
Publication 2023
Animals Blood Circulation Blood Pressure Body Temperature Brain Ischemia Cerebrovascular Circulation Common Carotid Artery Consciousness Dental Occlusion Electricity External Carotid Arteries Internal Carotid Arteries Ischemia Laser-Doppler Flowmetry Mice, House Neck Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Reperfusion Silicones Skin Temporal Muscle Transients tribromoethanol
3
Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Analysis
CBF values and images were calculated using a basis function implementation of the single-tissue compartment model [34 (link)–36 (link)], as implemented in the Turku PET Centre library tools [37 ], using either the BSIF or IDIF as input function. Only the first 5 min of the acquisition were used. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) values were extracted for all regions as defined using the Hammers atlas [38 (link)] after spatial normalisation to a common MNI (ICBM 152 [39 (link), 40 (link)]) space using FSL [41 (link), 42 ] (Additional file 1: Fig. S1).
Young P., Appel L., Tolf A., Kosmidis S., Burman J., Rieckmann A., Schöll M, & Lubberink M. (2023). Image-derived input functions from dynamic 15O–water PET scans using penalised reconstruction. EJNMMI Physics, 10, 15.
Publication 2023
cDNA Library Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Tissues
4
Evaluating Frontal Lobe Activation in Children through fNIRS
The fNIRS tests were performed under two conditions: the resting state and the visual music state. The test time of the resting state was 8 min. Block design was adopted for the visual music task. The rest time was 10 s and the rest time was 10 s for the visual music task. Children in both groups were tested with the fNIRS resting state test and 12 different types of visual music therapy tasks. Each child was given a total of 13 fNIRS tests over the course of a week. To avoid mutual interference between the two music therapies, an interval of about 60 s was set between every two visual music therapy. The contents of the 12 visual music tasks are presented in Table 1. The children were held by their caregivers at a distance of 70 cm from two television screens, with one screen displaying a realistic picture and the other displaying one of four pictures (Figure 1).
The ETG-4000 NIRS (Hitachi Medical Systems Corporation, Tokyo, Japan) was adopted to perform the fNIRS measurement, with a sampling rate of 10 Hz, 22 measurement channels, wavelengths of 695 and 830 nm, and a fixed distance of 3 cm between the emitter and the detector. The fNIRS brain activity measurement was performed by converting the absorbance differences into relative concentration changes in oxyhemoglobin (HbO), deoxyhemoglobin (HbR), and total hemoglobin according to the modified Beer-Lambert law. In this study, we primarily focused on the concentration change of HbO as it is the most sensitive indicator of regional cerebral blood flow in fNIRS measurements and is considered to have the strongest positive correlation with the blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) signal used in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) (10 (link)). Based on the International 10-20 system of electrode placement, 15 probes (eight emitters and seven detectors) were attached to a 3×5 grid overlying the PFC of the brain on a soft cap designed for children.
According to the 10-20 system, regions of interest (ROIs) were shown as follows: Channels 17, 18, and 22 were defined as A; Channels 4, 8, 9, and 13 as B; Channels 20 and 21 as C; Channels 2, 3, 7, 11, 12, and 16 as D; Channels 14, 15, and 19 as E; and Channels 1, 5, 6, and 10 as F (13 ). The sites and partition of the fNIRS test are shown in Figure 2.
Shi S., Wang J., Wang Y., Wang H., Zhang Q, & Qie S. (2023). Effects of different types of visual music on the prefrontal hemodynamics of children with autism spectrum disorder based on functional near-infrared spectroscopy. Translational Pediatrics, 12(2), 162-171.
Publication 2023
ARID1A protein, human Beer Blood Oxygen Levels Brain Cardiac Arrest Child deoxyhemoglobin Hemoglobin Music Therapy Oxyhemoglobin Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Spectroscopy, Near-Infrared
5
Establishing Cerebral Ischemia via MCAO
To establish cerebral ischemia MCAO, mice were anesthetized by isoflurane (3% for induction and 1.5% for maintenance) inhalation [26 (link)]. The left common and external carotid arteries were isolated and ligated. A microvascular clip was temporarily placed on the internal carotid artery. A 6–0 nylon suture coated with a rounded tip was introduced through a small incision into the internal carotid arteries via the external carotid arteries and advanced 5 mm distal to the carotid bifurcation for MCAO. After 90 min of ischemia, the filament was withdrawn to allow reperfusion. Sham-operated mice were subjected to the same surgical procedure, except for filament insertion. The rectal temperature was maintained between 36 °C and 37 °C using a feedback-controlled heating system. Regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) was monitored using laser Doppler flowmetry (Fig. 1B, C). Mice were excluded from further experiment if the CBF failed to decrease to < 30% of pre-ischemia baseline levels.
Li Y., Huang J., Wang J., Xia S., Ran H., Gao L., Feng C., Gui L., Zhou Z, & Yuan J. (2023). Human umbilical cord-derived mesenchymal stem cell transplantation supplemented with curcumin improves the outcomes of ischemic stroke via AKT/GSK-3β/β-TrCP/Nrf2 axis. Journal of Neuroinflammation, 20, 49.
Publication 2023
Carotid Arteries Cerebral Ischemia Cerebrovascular Circulation Clip Cytoskeletal Filaments External Carotid Arteries Inhalation Internal Carotid Arteries Ischemia Isoflurane Laser-Doppler Flowmetry Mus Nylons Operative Surgical Procedures Rectum Regional Cerebral Blood Flow Reperfusion Sutures

Top products related to «Regional Cerebral Blood Flow»

1
Periflux system 5000 by Perimed
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The PeriFlux System 5000 is a comprehensive laser Doppler perfusion monitoring system designed for clinical and research applications. It provides continuous, non-invasive measurement of microvascular blood flow, perfusion, and oxygen tissue saturation.
2
Periflux 5000 by Perimed
Sourced in Sweden
The PeriFlux 5000 is a laser Doppler perfusion monitoring system designed for clinical and research applications. It measures microvascular blood flow and tissue perfusion using laser Doppler technology.
3
Laser doppler flowmetry by Moor Instruments
Sourced in United Kingdom, United States
Laser Doppler flowmetry is a non-invasive technique used to measure blood flow. It utilizes the Doppler effect to detect the movement of red blood cells within the microcirculation. The technique provides real-time, continuous measurements of tissue perfusion.
4
Periflux system 5010 by Perimed
Sourced in Sweden
The Periflux System 5010 is a multi-channel laser Doppler perfusion monitoring system. It measures microcirculatory blood flow in a non-invasive and continuous manner.
5
Laser doppler flowmetry by Perimed
Sourced in Sweden, United States, France
Laser Doppler flowmetry is a non-invasive technique used to measure tissue perfusion. It utilizes a low-power laser to detect the Doppler shift of light, which is proportional to the velocity of blood cells moving within the tissue. This technology provides a quantitative assessment of microvascular blood flow without the need for exogenous tracers or dyes.
6
Periflux laser doppler system 5000 by Perimed
Sourced in Sweden
The PeriFlux Laser Doppler System 5000 is a medical device that utilizes laser Doppler technology to measure microvascular blood flow. It provides quantitative data on perfusion in the skin and other tissues.
7
Vms ldf2 by Moor Instruments
Sourced in United Kingdom
The VMS-LDF2 is a laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF) device designed for lab use. It measures microvascular blood flow in tissue. The device uses a laser to detect the Doppler shift in light reflected from moving blood cells, which is proportional to the speed of blood flow.
8
Laser doppler flowmeter by Transonic Systems
Sourced in United States
The Laser Doppler Flowmeter is a non-invasive instrument used to measure fluid flow velocity. It utilizes the Doppler effect, whereby the frequency of light reflected from a moving object is shifted in proportion to the object's velocity. The instrument can be used to measure the flow of liquids and gases in a variety of applications.
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C57bl 6j mice by Jackson ImmunoResearch
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C57BL/6J mice are a widely used inbred mouse strain. They are a commonly used model organism in biomedical research.
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6.0 mm monofilament by Doccol
Sourced in United States
The 6.0-mm monofilament is a laboratory equipment item used to measure touch sensitivity. It is a single, cylindrical fiber constructed from a non-elastic material.

More about "Regional Cerebral Blood Flow"

Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) is a crucial physiological parameter that provides valuable insights into brain function, metabolism, and neurological health.
This measure of blood perfusion within specific brain regions is widely studied using various imaging techniques, such as positron emission tomography (PET) and functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
By analyzing rCBF, researchers can investigate brain activity, identify areas of altered perfusion in neurological disorders, and advance our understanding of cerebrovascular regulation.
This field of study encompasses the protocols, methods, and technologies used to assess rCBF, including tools like the PeriFlux System 5000, PeriFlux 5000, and Laser Doppler flowmetry.
The PeriFlux System 5010 and PeriFlux Laser Doppler System 5000 are among the advanced instruments utilized in rCBF research, offering precise measurements and reliable data.
The VMS-LDF2 Laser Doppler Flowmeter is another specialized tool that enables researchers to quantify blood flow in small vessels, including those found in the brain.
Experiments on animal models, such as C57BL/6J mice, often employ techniques like the 6.0-mm monofilament to study regional blood flow patterns and their implications for neurological conditions.
By leveraging these cutting-edge technologies and methodologies, scientists can enhance the reproducibility and efficiency of their rCBF research, ultimately contributing to a deeper understanding of the brain's intricate vascular system and its role in health and disease.