The surface and cross-section morphology of membranes were directly observed by scanning electron microscope (SEM) (Quanta FEG 450, Amsterdam, The Netherlands). The membranes were dried and coated with gold sputter (Q150R Rotary-Pumped Sputter Coater/Carbon Coater, Quorum Technologies, Lewes, UK). The surface hydrophilicity was evaluated by drop shape analyzer using a contact angle goniometer (Attension Theta Lite, Biolin Scientific Company, Västra Frölunda, Sweden).
By the gravimetric method, the porosity was obtained, where membranes were weighted after removing the water (m1) and after drying (m2). Membrane porosity (ε) was determined according to Equation (1):
where ρH2O is the density of water, 1.0 g/cm3, and ρPES is the density of PES, 1.37 g/cm3 [33 (link)].