Dimethylformamide

Indium-doped tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass slides (2 cm × 2 cm) with a sheet resistivity of 10 Ω/□ were obtained from AMG, Korea. The zinc acetate dihydrate (Zn(CH₃CO)₂∙2H₂O, 99.99%), lead bromide (PbBr₂, 99.99%), and 4-tert-butylpyridine (tBP) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Formamidinium bromide (FABr, 99.99%) was obtained from Greatcell Solar Materials Pvt Ltd. Lead iodide (PbI₂, 99.99%) was acquired from TCI chemicals. Gold pellets (Au, 99.99%) and Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) were bought from Rieke Metals Inc. (Lincoln, NE, USA). Cesium iodide (CsI, 99.99%) and tin oxide (SnO₂, 15% in H₂O) colloidal solutions were obtained from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, USA). 2-methoxyethanol (2-ME, 99%), acetone (99%), ethanolamine (99%), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 99.8%), isopropanol (IPA, 99.5%), and dimethylformamide (DMF, 99.5%) were purchased from Samchun Chemical (Seoul, Republic of Korea). Phenyl-C₆₁-butyric acid methyl ester (PC₆₁BM, 99.5%) was bought from Organic Semiconductor Materials. Chlorobenzene (CB, 99% GR grade) was acquired from Wako Chemicals. All the received chemicals were used in the fabrication of PSCs without any further purification.

The conjugation of TSNs was performed by mixing acid-treated nanoparticles with dye-conjugated silane. Tetramethylrhodamine isothiocyanate (0.44 mg, Sigma-Aldrich, mixed isomers) and (3-aminopropyl)trimethoxysilane (0.18 mg, Sigma-Aldrich, 97%) were dissolved in 0.5 ml of dimethylformamide (Samchun, 99.5%), and the solution was shaken gently for 30 min. The resulting dye solution was added to the nanoparticle solution dispersed in the phosphate buffer (pH=8.0), and kept being shaken over 8 h. The unreacted dye molecules were removed by several centrifugations, and the resulting nanoparticles were dispersed in distilled water. Other surface modification details were summarized in Supplementary Table 1.

Indium-doped tin oxide (ITO)-coated glass slides (2 cm × 2 cm) with a sheet resistivity of 10 Ω/□ were obtained from AMG, Korea. The zinc acetate dihydrate (Zn(CH₃CO)₂∙2H₂O, 99.99%), lead bromide (PbBr₂, 99.99%), and 4-tert-butylpyridine (tBP) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Formamidinium bromide (FABr, 99.99%) was obtained from Greatcell Solar Materials Pvt Ltd. Lead iodide (PbI₂, 99.99%) was acquired from TCI chemicals. Gold pellets (Au, 99.99%) and Poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) were bought from Rieke Metals Inc. (Lincoln, NE, USA). Cesium iodide (CsI, 99.99%) and tin oxide (SnO₂, 15% in H₂O) colloidal solutions were obtained from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, USA). 2-methoxyethanol (2-ME, 99%), acetone (99%), ethanolamine (99%), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, 99.8%), isopropanol (IPA, 99.5%), and dimethylformamide (DMF, 99.5%) were purchased from Samchun Chemical (Seoul, Republic of Korea). Phenyl-C₆₁-butyric acid methyl ester (PC₆₁BM, 99.5%) was bought from Organic Semiconductor Materials. Chlorobenzene (CB, 99% GR grade) was acquired from Wako Chemicals. All the received chemicals were used in the fabrication of PSCs without any further purification.