Galactose

Yeast extract, sucrose, glucose, and medium with chloramphenicol were obtained from BTL (Łódź, Poland). Galactose was purchased from Acros Organic (Geel, Belgium). Citric acid, Na₂HPO₄·2H₂O, and MgCl₂ were obtained from POCH (Gliwice, Poland). Fructose was obtained from Chempur (Piekary Śląskie, Poland). L-Phenylalanine, lactic acid, sodium sulfate, ethyl acetate, dichloromethane, and diethyl ether were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Poznań, Poland). Inulin was obtained from Hortimex Plus (Konin, Poland). Spray-dried sour whey and buttermilk were purchased from Laktopol (Suwałki, Poland). The following reference aroma compounds were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Poznań, Poland): 2,3-butanedione, acetic acid, 3-methylbutanal, 3-methyl-1-butanol, butanoic acid, isovaleric acid, 3-(methylthio)-propanal, dimethyl trisulfide, phenylacetaldehyde, furaneol, maltol, 2-phenylethanol, ethyl furaneol, (E)-2-nonenal, and phenylacetic acid. The following stable isotopes were obtained from AromaLAB (Freising, Germany): [¹³C₄] 2,3-butanedione, [¹³C₁] acetic acid, [²H₃] 2-methylbutanal, [²H₂] 3-methyl-1-butanol, [²H₇] butanoic acid, [²H₂] isovaleric acid, [²H₅] 3-(methylthio)-propanal, [²H₆] dimethyl trisulfide, [²H₅] phenylacetaldehyde, [¹³C₂] furaneol, [²H₃] maltol, [²H₅] 2-phenylethanol, [²H₂] (E)-2-nonenal, and [²H₈] naphthalene.

Melojel^® dent corn starch (dent corn), Amioca waxy corn starch (waxy corn), PenPure^® 10 potato starch (potato), Hylon^® VII high amylose (≈70% amylose) corn starch (HACS70), and Hylon^® V high amylose (≈55% amylose) corn starch (HACS55) were donated by Ingredion Inc. (Westchester, IL, USA), and Aytex^® P wheat starch was donated by ADM (Minneapolis, MN, USA) (Table 1). All starches were unmodified and used “as is”. Eleven different sugars and sugar alcohols that are commonly used as food ingredients and/or have minor stereochemical differences of interest for this study were used: glucose, galactose, fructose, and mannose from Acros Organics (Fair Lawn, NJ, USA); trehalose dihydrate from Hayashibara Company (Okayama, Japan); maltose monohydrate from Fisher Bioreagents (Fair Lawn, NJ, USA); isomaltulose monohydrate and isomalt from BENEO-Palatinit Gmbh (Mannheim, Germany); sucrose from Mallinckrodt Chemicals (Phillipsburg, NJ, USA); and maltitol and sorbitol from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, USA) (Table 1). Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) was from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA), and hydrochloric acid (37%) (HCl) was from Acros Organics. The water used in this study was processed using reverse osmosis, then filtered by a Barnstead E-Pure Lab Water System (Dubuque, IA, USA) to >17.4 milliohm-cm.

Galactose was purchased from ACROS, New Jersey, USA; tropicamide ophthalmic solution (1%) was purchased from Alcon Laboratories South Africa (Pty) Ltd; rat enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) kits (Glutathione (GSH), Bicinchoninic acid (BCA), alpha-crystallin A chain (CRYAA) and aquaporin 0 (AQPO)) were purchased from Shanghai chemical limited, Shanghai, China; sodium selenite, ammoniacal alcohol, sulphuric acid, chloroform, dragendorff reagent, Mayer's reagent, sodium hydroxide, Fehling's solution A & B, lead acetate, ferric chloride, ammonia (liquid), hydrochloric acid, acetic anhydride, and 2,2-dipheny-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) were purchased from Sigma Aldrich, Germany; quercetin was purchased from Double Wood LLC, USA; gallic acid was purchased from Reg-LABOGENS, India; and ascorbic acid was purchased from Brenntag, Ghana.

Aytex^® P wheat starch, an unmodified, highly purified native wheat starch (<0.2% protein, <0.1% fat, <0.2% ash, 9.9% water, and 25% amylose) [42 ] was donated by ADM (Minneapolis, MN, USA) and used “as is”. Twenty different sugars and sugar alcohols that may be found in food products and/or have stereochemical structures of interest were used: xylose, ribose, glucose, galactose, fructose, mannose, and mannitol from Acros Organics (Fair Lawn, NJ, USA); L-sorbose and xylitol from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA); trehalose dihydrate from Hayashibara Company (Okayama, JP, USA); tagatose and allulose from Sensato (Albany, NY, USA); maltose monohydrate and lactose monohydrate from Fisher Chemical (Fair Lawn, NJ, USA); isomaltulose monohydrate and isomalt ST (~1:1 ratio of glucopyranosyl sorbitol and glucopyranosyl mannitol dihydrate [43 ]) from BENEO-Palatinit Gmbh (Mannheim, DE, USA); sorbitol from Amresco (Solon, OH, USA); sucrose from Mallinckrodt Chemicals (Phillipsburg, NJ, USA); and maltitol and raffinose pentahydrate from Alfa Aesar (Ward Hill, MA, USA) (Table 1). Calcium propionate was from Sigma-Aldrich. The water used in this study was processed using reverse osmosis, then filtered by a Barnstead E-Pure Lab Water System (Dubuque, IA, USA) to >17.4 milliohm-cm.