All measurements were performed on the participant's dominant arm using a custom‐designed transducer. An aluminum device positioned the elbow in 90 degrees of flexion, where the participant was seated in a rigid back chair with the humerus horizontal and the forearm oriented vertically (Figure 1a ). The arm was secured firmly into the device with a non‐compliant wrist strap so that a PT4000 200kg S‐Type load cell (PT Ltd., NZ) attached to the posterior side of the device could measure elbow flexion force. From this load cell data, flexion force could be converted to flexion torque based on the distance between the lateral epicondyle and the point of force application at the wrist. Torque data were sampled at 2 kHz via Spike2 (CED Ltd., UK).
Surface EMG was obtained from the biceps brachii and triceps brachii using bipolar 24 mm Ag/AgCl electrodes. Electrodes were aligned in the direction of underlying muscle fibers and had an inter‐electrode distance of 24 mm (Kendall ARBO). Surface EMG signals were differentially amplified 1,000 times (NL844, Digitimer Ltd., UK), bandpass filtered with cut‐off frequencies of 10 and 500 Hz (NL135 and NL144, Digitimer Ltd., UK), and then input into a 16‐bit Power 1,401 data acquisition interface (CED Ltd., UK). Surface EMG was sampled via the same Spike2 arrangement used to collect torque data.
Surface EMG was obtained from the biceps brachii and triceps brachii using bipolar 24 mm Ag/AgCl electrodes. Electrodes were aligned in the direction of underlying muscle fibers and had an inter‐electrode distance of 24 mm (Kendall ARBO). Surface EMG signals were differentially amplified 1,000 times (NL844, Digitimer Ltd., UK), bandpass filtered with cut‐off frequencies of 10 and 500 Hz (NL135 and NL144, Digitimer Ltd., UK), and then input into a 16‐bit Power 1,401 data acquisition interface (CED Ltd., UK). Surface EMG was sampled via the same Spike2 arrangement used to collect torque data.