Cinnamyl acetate

Twenty ginger samples from different origins were purchased from different vendors through Amazon.com, and two ginger samples were collected from Sagamu and Zaria districts of Nigeria (details provided in Supplementary Table S1). All samples were in the form of dry powder. Six-gingerol (6G, ≥ 98% purity), 8-gingerol (8G, ≥ 95% purity), 10-gingerol (10G, ≥ 95% purity), ethyl cinnamate, cinnamyl acetate, 8-shogaol, and MTT were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Six-paradol was purchased from Adooq (Irvine, CA, USA), while pinolenic acid was sourced from Santa Cruz (Dallas, TX, USA). Deionized water was prepared using a Milli-Q purification system (Millipore, Billerica, MA, USA). LC–MS grade acetonitrile, methanol, and formic acid were purchased from Sigma Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Ethanol was purchased from Decon Laboratories, Inc. (King of Prussia, PA, USA). Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was purchased from Fisher Scientific (Pittsburgh, PA, USA).

Cinnamon phytochemicals, including cinnamic acid, cinnamyl alcohol, cinnamyl acetate, cinnamaldehyde, 2-methoxy cinnamaldehyde and α-methyl cinnamaldehyde, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), LPS (Escherichia coli O55:B5), adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 3-(4,5-dimethyldiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide (MTT) and trichloroacetic acid (TCA) were procured from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). The medium and reagents for cell culture were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Grand Island, NE, USA). Chemicals of analytical grade were used.

Porcine pancreatic lipase (PPL, type II), 4-nitrophenyl butyrate (p-NPB), porcine pancreatic cholesterol esterase, oleic acid, phosphatidylcholine, cholesterol, sodium taurocholate hydrate, sodium chenodeoxycholate, sodium glycodeoxycholate, orlistat, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), cholestyramine resin, cinnamyl acetate, eugenol, kaempferol, trans-cinnamaldehyde, trans-cinnamic acid, phlorizidin, epicatechin, catechin, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid, gallic acid, and HMG-CoA reductase assay kits (CS 1090) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co., St. Louis, MO, USA. Total cholesterol test kits (BXC0261) were purchased from Fortress Diagnostics, UK, and total bile acid kits (BQ 042A-EALD) were purchased from Bio-Quant Co. (San Diego, CA, USA). All the other chemical reagents used in this study were of analytical grade.