Ribavirin

The following compounds were purchased commercially from the sources indicated: allopurinol, benzbromarone, cyclosporine, D-fructose, elacridar, furosemide, hydrochlorothiazide, nicotinic acid, oxypurinol, rosuvastatin calcium salt, salicylic acid, 4-hydroxy chalcone (Wako Fine Chemical, Osaka, Japan); atorvastatin, chlorothiazide, febuxostat, mizoribine, pyrazinecarboxylic acid, ribavirin, tacrolimus, xylitol (Tokyo Chemical Industry, Tokyo, Japan); ethambutol, losartan (LKT Laboratories, St Paul, MN, USA); fenofibrate, probenecid, sulfasalazine, Ko143, ATP, AMP, creatine phosphate disodium salt tetrahydrate, creatine phosphokinase type I from rabbit muscle (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA); pyrazinamide (ACROS ORGANICS, Geel, Belgium); theophylline (Nacalai Tesque, Kyoto, Japan); and topiroxostat (MedChem Express, Princeton, NJ, USA). The [8-¹⁴C]-uric acid (53 mCi/mmol) was from American Radiolabeled Chemicals (St. Louis, MO, USA). All other chemicals used were commercially available and of analytical grade.

Recombinant human TNF-α (Cat. # 554618) was purchased from BD. Biosciences. Ribavirin (RIB, Cat. # R0077) was purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry (TCI). Mycophenolic acid (MPA, Cat. # M3546), BAY 11-7082 (Cat. #B5556-10MG), and bortezomib (Cat. # 5043140001) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Remdesivir was purchased from AOBIOUS.
Anti-V5 (Cat. # R960-25), HRP-conjugated anti-V5, and goat HRP-conjugated anti-mouse IgG (H+L) secondary antibody (Cat. # 31430) were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific. Anti-GAPDH antibody (Cat. # sc-32233) was purchased from Santa Cruz Biotechnology. Anti-NF-κB p65 (Cat. #8242), anti NF-κB p65 ser536 phosphorylation (Cat. #3033), anti-FLAG (Cat. # 2368), anti-H3 (Cat. # 9715S), and goat HRP-conjugated anti-rabbit IgG (Cat. # 7074) antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology. Anti-IL8 antibody (Cat. # 554717) was purchased from BD. Biosciences. The anti-IMPDH2 antibody (Cat. # 12948-1-AP) was purchased from Proteintech Group. The anti-SARS-CoV-1/2 NP 1C7C7 antibody was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich.

Ribavirin (>98% purity) and MTT were purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry (Tokyo, Japan) and Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO), respectively. Anitbiotic-antimycotic and minimum essential medium (MEM) were purchased from Invitrogen (Grand Island, NY). Fetal bovine serum (FBS) was supplied by PAA Laboratories (Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada). The protein molecular weight standards (Precision Plus Protein all blue standards) were purchased from Bio-Rad Life Sciences (Hercules, CA). RIPA buffer and 1% mammalian cell protease inhibitor cocktail were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. The primary antibodies used in this study were as follows: anti-ICAM-1 antibody [rabbit polyclonal to intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1)], anti-low-density lipoprotein receptor (LDLR) antibody (rabbit polyclonal to LDLR), and anti-actin antibody (rabbit polyclonal to actin) purchased from Abcam (Cambridge, UK). The secondary antibody (horseradish peroxidase conjugated goat polyclonal to rabbit) was supplied by Abcam. All of the other chemicals and reagents used in this study were of analytical grade quality and available commercially.