Linolenic acid

Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM) was obtained from Hyclone (Logan, UT, USA). Phosphate-buffered saline, fetal bovine serum (FBS), penicillin, and streptomycin were obtained from Gibco-BRL (Gaithersburg, MD, USA). The Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8) was purchased from Dojindo Molecular Technologies Inc. (Rockville, MD, USA). The bicinchoninic acid assay (BCA) kit, IFN-γ and TNF-α were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). L-leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, linolenic acid, palmitic acid and stearic acid were purchased from Cayman chemical (Ann Arbor, MI, USA). The 15-hydroxy-5,8,11,13-eicosatetraenoic acid, stearidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid, arachidonic acid, and linoleic acid were obtained from Targetmol (Boston, MA, USA). MS-grade acetonitrile, water and formic acid were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). The p-STAT1, STAT1, p-IκBα, IκBα, p-p38, p38, p-ERK, ERK, p-JNK, JNK, p65, and β-actin antibodies were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Beverly, MA, USA). p50 and anti-proliferating cell nuclear antigen antibodies were obtained from Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA, USA).

Oils, palmitic acid, 12-hydroxystearic acid, behenic acid, lauric acid, arachidic acid, 12-hydroxylauric acid, linolenic acid, 16-hydroxypalmitic acid, 2-hydroxycaprioic acid, stearyl alcohol, stearyl methacrylate, stearyl amine, oleic acid, stearic acid, glyceryl monooleate [90% United States Pharmacopeia (USP) reference standard], l-α-phosphatidylcholine [from egg yolk; type XVI-E, ≥99% (TLC), lyophilized powder], maleic acid (99% pure), sodium taurocholate hydrate, sodium oleate, α-amylase from human saliva (type IX-A, lyophilized powder; 1000 to 3000 U/mg of protein), pepsin from porcine gastric mucosa (3200 to 4500 U/mg of protein), pancreatin (8×USP specifications), and 4-bromophenylboronic acid (4-BBBA, ≥95.0%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. 3-Hydroxymyristic acid was purchased from Tokyo Chemical Industry. linolenic acid, linoelaidic acid, and elaidic acid were purchased from Cayman Chemical Company. Rice bran wax and castor oil wax were purchased from HalalEveryday. Carnauba wax was purchased from Luxuriant. Beeswax was purchased from Stakich Inc. Candelilla wax was purchased from Plant Guru Inc. Soy wax was obtained from Golden Brands. Lauroglycol FCC, Labrafil M1944, Labrafil M2125, Labrasol ALF, Plurol oleique, Lauroglycol 90, Labrafac lipophile, Maisine, Capryol PGMC, Peceol, and Capryol 90 were a gift from Gattefossé (Saint Priest, France).