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1

Enzymatic Assay for Cysteine Sulfoxide Synthesis

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Reduced
form of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
(NADH), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) from rabbit muscle, and (±)-L-alliin
were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich; pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP)
and d,l-dithiothreitol (DTT) were from Serva; kanamycin
is a domestic product (OAO Biokhimik); DEAE-sepharose was from Amersham.
2-Nitro-5-thiobenzoate (NTB) was prepared according to ref (31 (link)). S-Methyl-l-cysteine sulfoxide (methiin) was synthesized according to
Morozova et al.22 (link) PEG–poly(α,β-aspartic
acid)70 (PEG–P(Asp)70) and poly-(l-lysine)70 (PLL70) were synthesized according
to Koide et al.32 (link) Luria–Bertani
broth (LB), Mueller–Hinton broth, Mueller–Hinton agar,
and antibiotic-impregnated discs: amikacin, amoxycillin/clavulanic
acid, ampicillin, azithromycin, aztreonam, cefepime, ceftazidime,
ceftriaxone, cephotaxime, cephoxitin, chloramphenicol, ciprofloxacin,
colistin, doxycycline, erythromycin, gentamicin, imipenem, levofloxacin,
lincomycin, norfloxacin, ofloxacin, oxacillin, rifampicin, spiramycin,
tobramycin, and vancomycin were from HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Limited
(India).
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2

Antibiotic Susceptibility of Brucella Isolates

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The brucells isolates were tested for their susceptibility to 11 antibiotics (Rifampicin; Ciprofloxacin; Ampicillin; Erythromycin; Novobiocin; Kanamycin; Gentamicin; Streptomycin; Tetracycline; Doxycycline and Carbenicillin), obtained from Himedia Laboratories. Testing was performed on Mueller-Hinton Agar plates using the Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion technique (Bauer & Kirby, 1966 (link)). The antibiotic resistance of each brucella isolate was determined based on the breakpoints of the inhibition zone diameters for individual antibiotic agents and as recommended by the disk manufacturer.
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3

Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing of Isolated Organisms

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The antibiotic susceptibility tests of the isolated organisms were done using Mueller Hinton Agar (MHA) by the standard disk diffusion technique of the Kirby-Bauer method as recommended by CLSI [21 ]. The following antibiotics with specified concentrations were used: ampicillin (10 μg), ampicillin-sulbactam (10/10 μg), amoxycillin-clavulanic acid (20/10 μg), cefixime (5 μg), ceftazidime (30 μg), ceftriaxone (30 μg), cefepime (30 μg), cefoxitin (30 μg), piperacillin (100 μg), piperacillin-tazobactam (100/10 μg), cotrimoxazole (1.25/23.75 μg), gentamicin (10 μg), amikacin (30 μg), imipenem (10 μg), meropenem (10 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), levofloxacin (5 μg), colistin sulfate (10 μg), erythromycin (15 μg), clindamycin (2 μg), vancomycin (30 μg), teicoplanin (30 μg), doxycycline (30 μg), and chloramphenicol (30 μg) from HiMedia Laboratories, India.
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4

Antimicrobial Resistance Profiling of Clinical Isolates

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Antimicrobial susceptibility tests of the clinical isolates against different antimicrobials were performed in Müller–Hinton agar (MHA) using the standard disk diffusion technique (modified Kirby–Bauer method) and interpreted as per Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute guidelines.16 The following antimicrobial agents were tested: ampicillin (10 μg), cefoxitin (30 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), chloramphenicol (30 μg), clindamycin (2 μg), cotrimoxazole (25 μg), doxycycline (30 μg), erythromycin (15 μg), gentamicin (10 μg), minocycline (30 μg), rifampicin (5 μg), teicoplanin (30 μg), tetracycline (30 μg) and vancomycin (30 μg) (HiMedia Laboratories, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India). S. aureus ATCC 25923 was used as the control organism.
Isolates were considered multidrug resistant (MDR) based on the guidelines recommended by the joint initiative of the European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).17 (link) According to those guidelines, the isolates showing non-susceptibility to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobial categories were identified as MDR.
S. aureus isolates showing positive D zone test were considered as resistant to clindamycin.
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5

Antibiotic Susceptibility Profiling of Bacteria

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Antibiotic susceptibility profiles of bacteria were tested by disc diffusion method (Baurer et al., 1966 (link)) against 14 commercially available antibiotics such as Ampicillin, Gentamycin, Azithromycin, Sulphatrimethoprim, Vancomycin, Ciprofloxacin, Cephalexin, Doxycycline, Streptomycin, Oxacillin, Erythromycin, Tetracycline, Chloramphenicol and Nalidixic acid (Hi Media, India). Antimicrobial testing results were recorded as susceptible, intermediate and resistant according to zone diameter interpretive standards provided by CLSI (2010 ).
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6

Phytochemical Analysis and Antioxidant Evaluation

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Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium, kinetin, naphthalene acetic acid, pectin, MnCl2, methanol, toluene, chloroform, ethanol, diethyl ether, benzene, streptomycin, ciprofloxacin, doxycycline, ampicillin, ofloxacin, dimethyl sulfoxide, DPPH (1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl), sodium acetate, glacial acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, TPTZ (2,4,6-tri[2-pyridyl]-s-triazine), ferrous sulphate, ferric chloride, nitro blue tetrazolium, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), riboflavin, hydrogen peroxide, methionine, dipotassium phosphate, monopotassium phosphate, and thymol (THY) were purchased from HIMEDIA; thymoquinone (TQ) was purchased from Sigma Aldrich.
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7

Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Protocol

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Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using the standard Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method [41 ]. For fastidious organisms, Muller-Hinton agar with 5% sheep blood was used and incubated in 5% CO2; GC agar and Haemophilus Test Medium were used for Neisseria gonorrhoeae and Haemophilus influenzae, respectively [42 ]. The following antibiotics were used: trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole (SXT; 1.25/23.75 μg), erythromycin (15 μg), clarithromycin (15 μg), chloramphenicol (30 μg), clindamycin (2 μg), tetracycline (30 μg), doxycycline (30 μg), amikacin (30 μg), gentamicin (10 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), ceftriaxone (30 μg) and cefoxitin (30 μg) (HIMEDIA). The zones of inhibition of the antimicrobial agents were measured using calipers; bacteria were described as susceptible or resistant based on CLSI guideline [42 ]. Multidrug resistance was defined as non-susceptible to ≥1 agent in ≥3 antimicrobial categories according to the definition of Magiorakos and colleagues [43 (link)].
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8

Antibiotic Susceptibility of A. baumannii

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The susceptibility of A. baumannii isolates against different antibiotics was determined by the modified Kirby–Bauer disk diffusion method on Mueller-Hinton agar and interpreted following standard procedures recommended by the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI), Wayne, USA.11 The antibiotic sensitivity profile of all the isolates of A. baumannii were determined by testing against ampicillin-sulbactam (10/10 μg), ceftazidime (30 μg), gentamicin (10 μg), ciprofloxacin (5 μg), levofloxacin (5 μg), meropenem (10 μg), and imipenem (10 μg). The isolates that were resistant to at least one antimicrobial from three different groups of above-mentioned antibiotics (ie, MDR isolates) were also tested against piperacillin (100 μg), piperacillin-tazobactam (100/10 μg), cefotaxime (30 μg), cefepime (30 μg), cotrimoxazole (25 μg), amikacin (30 μg), doxycycline (30 μg), polymyxin B (300 units), and colistin sulfate (10 μg) from HiMedia Laboratories, India.
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