Nova nanosem430

The morphologies and structures of GO sheets and GO-based membranes were characterized by scanning electron microscope (SEM, Nova NanoSEM 430, 15 kV/10 kV/5 kV), and the thicknesses were measured by Bruker DektakXT Stylus Profiler (Germany). The chemical compositions of membranes were characterized by XPS on ESCALAB250 (150 W, spot size 500 µm) using Al Kα radiation; all spectra were calibrated to the binding energy of adventitious carbon (284.6 eV). XRD patterns were acquired with an XRD diffractometer (D-MAX/2400) using Cu Kα radiation (λ = 0.154 nm). Hydrophilicity of the membrane surfaces was evaluated by a contact angle goniometer. UV–Vis spectra for the dyes were measured on a UV–Vis–NIR spectrophotometer (Varian Carry 5000). AFM (Bruker, Multimode 8) was used to characterize the thickness of GO sheets. FTIR spectra were measured on Bruker Tensor 27 to identify the cross-linking between TA/TH and rGO sheets.

The materials and devices were characterized using an optical microscope (Nikon Eclipse LV100ND), an SEM (FEI Nova NanoSEM430, acceleration voltage of 1 kV), an AFM (Bruker Dimension Icon), and a UV–Vis–NIR spectroscope (Varian Cary 5000). The electrical and optoelectronic performances were measured using a semiconductor analyzer (Agilent B1500A), a probe station (Cascade M150), an input signal generator (Tektronix AFG 3022C), an oscilloscope (Tektronix MSO 2024B), and a laser diode controller (Thorlabs ITC4001, using laser excitations of 405 and 516 nm) in a dark room at room temperature. The noise was measured by a noise measurement system (PDA NC300L, 100 kHz bandwidth). With the help of special mask to avoid crosstalk issues (Supplementary Fig. 30), the electrical performance of the 1024 phototransistors in the optoelectronic sensor array was automatically measured using a home-built transistor array test system (Agilent B1500A and Keysight 34980A) controlled by a self-developed program, and the data analysis and image processing were carried out using MATLAB (Supplementary Figs. 31–33).