Galactose

Glucose (Glu), Fructose (Fru), Mannose (Man), Galactose (Gal), Xylose (Xyl), Arabinose (Ara), Rhamnose (Rha), Fucose (Fuc), Galactose Uronic acid (GalUA), glucuronic acid (GlcUA), purity ≥ 98%, β-dextran (purity ≥ 80%), fructo oligosaccharide (purity ≥ 95%), xylan (purity ≥ 98%) and polygalacturonic acid (purity ≥ 90%) were purchased from Yuanye Biotechnology Co., Ltd. D-trehalose (purity ≥ 99%) was purchased from Shanghai McLean Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. All of other chemicals and reagents were analytical grade.

The medicinal materials in this study were the cultivated C. pilosula, which were harvested during the harvest period. They were identified as Codonopsis pilosula (Franch.) Nannf by Professor Gu Wei of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine. The voucher samples and digital image information were stored in the Herbarium of Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine.
Dried roots of C. pilosula were purchased from Pingshun County, Shanxi province, China. The herbs were dried at 50 °C, cut into 1 cm strips, and crushed into powder that passed through a sieve with 80 mesh. Mannose, rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, glucose, galactose, xylose, arabinose, fucose (all ≥ 98.0% purity), papain, and 1-phenyl-3-methyl-5-pyrazolone (PMP) were purchased from Shanghai Yuanye Bio-Technology Co., Ltd. Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and other chemicals were purchased from Shanghai Macklin Biochemical Co., Ltd. Acetonitrile (HPLC grade) was obtained from Merck Darmstadt Ltd. (Germany). All chemicals were reagent grade or better.

Fresh pumpkin peel was obtained from Laiyang Mengyu Co., Ltd. (Yantai, China). CrCl₃·6H₂O (analytical grade) was obtained by Tianjin Kaitong chemical reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) and insulin were provided by Sigma-Aldrich Co., Ltd. (St. Louis, MO, USA). α-Glucosidase, 4-nitrophenyl-α-D-glucopyranoside (PNPG), penicillin-streptomycin, and albumin bovine were purchased from Beijing Solarbio Technology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). Acarbose and monosaccharide standards (rhamnose, arabinose, galactose, glucose, mannose, xylose, fructose, galacturonic acid, and glucuronic acid) were obtained from Shanghai Yuanye Bio-Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Sodium acetate, anhydrous (electrochemical grade), and SS254-500 sodium hydroxide solution were purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Sunnyrale, CA, USA). High-glucose DMEM medium was obtained from Wuhan Servicebio Technology Co., Ltd. (Wuhan, China). Fetal bovine serum was purchased from Zhejiang Tianhang Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Huzhou, China). Trivalent chromium standard solution was supplied by Beijing Century Aoke Biotechnology Co. Ltd. (Beijing, China). All other chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade.

The Lentinus edodes were obtained from the Chahe Vegetable Market in Yangzhou City, China. Choline chloride, Malonate, Urea, Glycerol, 1,4-Butanediol, 1,3-Butanediol, Ethylene glycol and 1,2-Propanediol were purchased from Aladdin reagent Co., Ltd., (Shanghai, China). Glucose, galactose, xylose, mannose and rhamnose were purchased from Shanghai Yuanye Biological Technology Co., Ltd., (Shanghai, China). 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was obtained from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Other reagents were of analytical grade and obtained from Sinopharm Reagent Co., Ltd., (Shanghai, China).

Furosine and TFA were purchased from Sigma–Aldrich (San Francisco, CA, USA). Mannose, glucosamine, ribose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, aminogalactose, glucose, and galactose were purchased from Yuan-ye Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). The purity of these reagents was ˃99%. A total of 17 amino acid standards, ninhydrin (NIN), and a citric acid buffer solution were purchased from Hitachi Inc. (Hitachi Co., Osaka, Japan). HPLC-grade acetonitrile was purchased from Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA), and C18 Sep-Pak^® SPE tubes were purchased from Sepax (Sepax technology, Cork, Ireland). Ultrapure water was obtained by using a super-pure water system (Sichuan, China). All other reagents used in this study were of analytical grade and were purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. Ltd. (Beijing, China).

Dried fruiting bodies of T. mongolicum Imai were obtained from Zhangjiakou, Hebei Province, China. 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) was purchased from Solarbio Science and Technology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). The total antioxidant capacity assay kit for the ABTS method was purchased from Beyotime Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Monosaccharide standards (mannose, ribose, rhamnose, glucuronic acid, galacturonic acid, N-acetyl-D-glucosamine, N-acetyl-D- galactosamine, glucose, galactose, xylose, arabinose, and fucose) were purchased from Shanghai Yuanye Bio-Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). All the reagents and chemicals used in this study were analytical or HPLC grade.

The BHI medium was purchased from Land Bridge Technology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China). Chitosan, lactose, galactose, L-rhamnose, and kelp polysaccharide were purchased from Shanghai Yuanye Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). Yam peptide and casein peptide were obtained from the food laboratory of Institute of Agricultural Products Processing, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences. Cranberry extract and fucose were purchased from Qingdao Youshun Genesis Technology Co., Ltd. Sialic acid was purchased from Aladdin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China). All solvents and of analytical were analytical grade and purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China).