Inorganic salts

The modified 6SW-Vit medium (McGenity and Gramain, 2010 ) containing three solutions was used for biodegradation assays. Solution A contained (g 800 ml^–1) 30 NaCl, 10 MgCl₂.6H₂O, 2.53 KCl, 2.18 Na₂SO₄, 20 ml Tris–HCl (1 M; pH 7.6), 0.5 yeast extract. Solution B contained (ml 100 ml^–1) 0.6 H₃BO₃ (400 mM), 0.7 SrCl₂ (400 mM), 0.7 NaF (70 mM), 1 NH₄Cl (500 mM), 1 KH₂PO₄ (100 mM), two trace element solution SL-10, and solution C contained (ml 100 ml^–1) 10 CaCl₂.2H₂O (1 M). First, the solutions were separately autoclaved and thereafter mixed, when they were cooled down. Trace element solution SL-10 contained (per L) 10 ml HCl (25%; 7.7 M), 1.5 g FeCl₂.4H₂O, 70 mg ZnCl₂, 100 mg MnCl₂.4H₂O, 6 mg H₃BO₃, 190 mg CoCl₂.6H₂O, 2 mg CuCl₂.2H₂O, 24 mg NiCl₂.6H₂O, 36 mg Na₂MoO₄.2H₂O. Finally, pH was adjusted to the range of 7–7.2. All solvents, acids, inorganic salts and Tween 80 nonionic surfactant were purchased from Merck Co., and the heavy Persian crude oil was used in this study.

The main reagents for cell isolation and microscopy include: Fluo‐4 AM, propidium iodide and Hoechst‐33342 (ThermoFisher Scientific, Paisley, UK); collagenase type V, inorganic salts and bile salts (all from Sigma‐Aldrich, Gillingham, UK): sodium cholate (NaChol), sodium taurocholate (TC) and taurolithocholic acid 3‐sulfate (TLC‐S). NaHepes buffer was prepared as follows (mm): NaCl 140, KCl 4.7, Hepes 10, MgCl₂ 1, glucose 10; pH 7.3. NMDG‐Hepes was a modification of NaHepes, where NaCl was replaced by 140 mmN‐methyl‐d‐glucamine (NMDG⁺), pH 7.3.

ELISA kits for MMP‐1, IL‐6, and TGF‐β1 were purchased from R&D Systems (R&D Systems, Inc., Minneapolis, MN, USA), while ELISA kits for procollagen type I were purchased from Takara (Takara, Shiga, Japan). DMEM, FBS and penicillin streptomycin were purchased from Gibco BRL (Grand Island, NY, USA). MICA was used a specific inhibitor of DLD. Dry TV leaves were purchased from mountain rose herbs company (Eugene, OR, Florida, USA). Unless otherwise mentioned, solvents were purchased from Samchun Chemicals (Seoul, Korea), and inorganic salts were from Sigma‐Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA).

Anemopsis californica (AC) leaf powder was purchased from Ecuadorian Rainforest, LLC (Clifton, NJ, USA). Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM), fetal bovine serum (FBS), and penicillin–streptomycin were supplied by Gibco RBL (Grand Island, NY, USA). Standard tannic acid, chlorogenic acid, apigenin, positive control ascorbic acid, dexamethasone, and tacrolimus, as well as 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). An ELISA kit for procollagen type 1 was purchased from Takara (procollagen type 1 C-Peptide ELISA Kit; Takara Bio, Otsu, Japan). Human total MMP-1 and human total MMP-3 ELISA kits were purchased from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, MN, USA). Organic solvents were purchased from Samchun Chemical (Seoul, Korea) and Daejung Chemical & Metal (Siheung, Korea). Inorganic salts were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Silica gel was purchased from Merck (Kenilworth, NJ, USA). The primary and secondary antibodies were obtained from Cell Signaling Technology (Beverly, MA, USA), Santa Cruz Biotechnology (Santa Cruz, CA, USA), and Bio-Rad Laboratories, Inc. (Hercules, CA, USA).