Anhydrous alcohol

Anhydrous N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF; ≥ 99.8%) was purchased from Fisher Scientific (United States). Anhydrous benzene (≥ 98%), anhydrous alcohol (≤ 0.005% water), sodium hydrosulfide hydrate (pure), 1H,1H,2H,2H-perfluorodecanethiol (PFDT; 97%), tetrabutylammonium iodide (98%), benzoyl peroxide (≥ 98%), phosphorus chloride (≥ 98%), sulfuric acid (95–98%), hydrogen peroxide (30%, mass fraction), tris(2-carboxyethyl) phosphine hydrochloride (TCEP·HCl; ≥ 98%), and ultraflat silicon (111) wafers (N-type) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (United States).

Female BALB/c mice (6–8 weeks old) were obtained from Sipeifu Animal Technology Co. (Beijing, China). The mice were fed in a specific pathogen-free environment at 25 °C, exposed to a 12/12 h light/dark cycle, and were blindly sampled following a randomized design (six mice in each group). Colitis was induced using a 35% TNBS (Sigma) solution containing 20% anhydrous alcohol (Sigma). After stimulated defecation, mice were administered 0.1 mL of TNBS solution via rectal perfusion once every 7 days (four times in total) to imitate chronic colitis. Day 21 was the end point of modeling.

For cell studies, we used an immortalized human lung adenocarcinoma epithelial cell line A549 (Department of Medical Genetics, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Jilin University). Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium (DMEM), penicillin-streptomycin, trypsin, and fetal bovine serum were purchased from Sigma (USA). Cell Counting Kit-8 (CCK-8; Sigma, USA), acetone, anhydrous alcohol, GEN, ICA, gelatin from porcine skin (gel strength 250 g Bloom, Type A), glutaraldehyde, and acetone were purchased form Sigma (USA). A Zorbax® SB-C₁₈ high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) column (5 μm; 4.6 × 150 mm) for FLA analysis was purchased from Agilent Technologies (USA). HPLC-grade solvents methanol and acetonitrile were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and Fisher Scientific (USA). All other solvents and chemicals used were in high-grade purity. Fluorescence inverted microscope (Olympus, CKX41, Japan), desktop centrifuge (Eppendorf, Mini Spin, German), JB-2 constant temperature magnetic stirrer (Shanghai Lei Xin Instrument Co., Ltd., China), KQ-100DA ultrasonic oscillators (Kunshan Ultrasonic Instrument Co., Ltd. China), transmission electron microscope (TEM; JEM-1011, Japan), SEM (Hitachi S-4800, Japan), and AFM (VEECO Dimension icon, USA) were used.