Ultra plus

Morphology analysis of Chem-PdNPs and Bio-PdNPs was conducted by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The carrier samples were allowed to air dry and pieces on each sample were removed and mounted with adhesive carbon tape on aluminium stubs in the upright position^{31 (link)}. These were viewed in a Zeiss Ultra Plus field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) (Zeiss, Germany) at 2 kV.

Optical, AFM, and SECCM measurements of monolayer MXene flakes supported on carbon electrodes were acquired on a Park NX10 (Park Systems, South Korea). The AFM images were obtained in a non-contact mode (NCM) with a PPP-NCHR cantilever type (force constant = 42 N/m, resonance frequency = 330 kHz, Nanosensors). AFM and SECCM measurements were done in a room with temperature control. The temperature and humidity inside the SECCM and AFM Faraday cage were recorded for 7 days (see Supplementary Note 4), with a mean temperature of 22.6 ± 0.2 °C and relative humidity between 40 and 60 %RH. SEM images were acquired with a Zeiss Ultra Plus field-emision SEM with the secondary electron detectors, SE2 and In-Lens, at acceleration voltage of 3 kV. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) was performed on Zeiss Ultra Plus field-emission SEM at an acceleration voltage of 10 keV with a 20 mm² Oxford Inca EDX detector. X-ray diffraction (XRD) was obtained using the powder diffractometer Bruker D8 Discovery, in θ/2θ configuration and range of 3–75° at 2° min⁻¹. Raman spectroscopy measurements were acquired using a WITec Alpha 300R with a 633 nm He-Ne laser source and 1800 lines/mm grating. The structural characterization measurements (EDX, Raman, and XRD) were performed on as-synthesized Ti₃C₂T_x thin film produced by vacuum filtration.

The morphologies of the hybrid ZnO-MoS₂ photocatalyst and modified membranes were examined using a field emission scanning electron microscope (Zeiss Ultra plus, Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany). The membrane was initially pre-treated with gold (Au) sputtering to impart the electrical conductivity to get top surface and back-scattered micrographs of its cross-section morphology. The ZnO-MoS₂ photocatalyst was inherently conductive, and sample imaging was performed using a high-resolution lens at an accelerating voltage of 20 kV without gold sputtering.

Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) images of the Si nanostructures, as well as the prepared electrodes, were obtained with a Zeiss Ultra Plus (Carl Zeiss, Germany) at an acceleration voltage of 5 keV. X-Ray Diffraction was performed with a Bruker D5000 powder diffractometer equipped with a monochromatic Cu $K\alpha$ radiation source. XRD patterns were collected between $5^{°}<\theta <{90}^{°}$ , with a step size of $2\theta$ = 0.02 and a time per step of 163 s.

The spray-dried TB microparticles were visually imaged using SEM at 3 keV (Zeiss Ultra Plus, Carl Zeiss Pty Ltd., Sydney, Australia). Prior to imaging, the samples were dispersed onto carbon tapes and coated with platinum using a Hummer VI sputtering device, reaching 200 Å coating thickness. Magnifications of 3000×, 10,000×, and 25,000× were used.

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) imaging was performed to observe cell morphology and attachment on composite surfaces after one, three, and seven days of culture. Samples without cells were also imaged to examine the effect of culture medium and the presence of cells on the materials morphology. Samples were prepared by fixation in 2.5% glutaraldehyde, dehydration in a graded series of ethanol concentrations (30%, 50%, 70%, 90%, 95%, and 100%) and hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS), and gold coated using sputter method. Imaging was carried out using Zeiss Ultra Plus (Carl Zeiss AG, Oberkochen, Germany).