Axs d8 advance system

Absorbance was recorded with a UV-vis spectrophotometer (UV-3600; Shimadzu). The X-ray diffraction (XRD) patterns of samples and perovskite films were measured with an AXS D8 advance system (Bruker). The morphology of MAPbI₃ perovskite films was measured with a scanning electron microscope (500 series; Sigma). g-C₃N₄ particles were characterized via transmission electron microscopy (TEM) using a G2 F20 system (Tecnai). The incident photo-to-electron conversion efficiency (IPCE) of PSCs was analyzed using a 300 W xenon lamp (66984; Newport). The photocurrent–voltage (J–V) characteristics of PSCs were analyzed under simulated AM 1.5 G radiation (irradiance of 100 mW cm⁻²) using a solar simulator (91192-1000; Oriel) and a source meter (2400; Keithley). Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) was employed using an electrochemical workstation (IM6; Zennium) over a frequency range of 100 mHz to 2 MHz with 10 mV AC amplitude at −1 V bias under simulated AM 1.5 G radiation (irradiance of 100 mW cm⁻²). Devices were measured under ambient conditions [15% < relative humidity (RH) < 60%] each time (winter or summer). After measurements had been taken, devices were stored in a humidity-controlled dry room (15% < RH < 40%).

DRUV spectra were measured in the 200–800 nm range using spectral on as the reference on a PerkinElmer Lambda 1050 spectrometer equipped with an integrating sphere (Lapshere, North Sutton, USA). Nitrogen sorption isotherms at 77 K were obtained with a Micromeritics ASAP 2010 apparatus (Micromeritics, Norcross, GA, USA). Prior to measurement, the samples were degassed for 8 h at 80 °C to remove any physisorbed species. The surface area of the samples was evaluated as S_g = N_mAr, where N_m are the N₂ molecules adsorbed in a statistical monolayer on a gram of sample, A is the Avogadro number, and r is the molecular area of adsorbed N₂ (r commonly used being 0.162 nm²). The values are taken in the range of 0.03 < p/p₀ < 0.3. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) patterns were recorded on a D8 Advance Bruker AXS system (Bruker D8 Advance; Bruker Corp, Billerica, MA, EUA) using CuKα radiation with a step size of 0.02° in the 2θ range from 0.45 to 87°. Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy (FESEM) images were acquired using a ZEISS ULTRA 55 microscope equipped with an X-ray detector (EDS). Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy (STEM) images were acquired using a JEOL JEM 2100F Field Emission Transmission Electron Microscope of 200 kV equipped with an X-ray detector. Raman spectra were recorded using a 514 nm excitation laser on a Horiba LabRAM HR Evolution spectrometer.

Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectra were obtained with a PerkinElmer Spectrum 100 FT-IR spectrometer using neat samples (ATR FT-IR). DR-UV spectra were recorded in the 200–800 nm range, with Spectralon as the reference, using a PerkinElmer Lambda 1050 spectrometer equipped with an integrating sphere (Labshere, North Sutton, USA). Nitrogen sorption isotherms were obtained at 77 K with Micromeritics ASAP 2010 apparatus (Micromeritics, Norcross, GA, USA). Prior to measurement, the samples were degassed for 12 h at 100 °C to remove any physisorbed species. X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) patterns were recorded using a D8 Advance Bruker AXS system (Bruker D8 Advance; Bruker Corp, Billerica, MA, USA) using CuKα radiation and a step size of 0.02° in the 2θ range from 0.45 to 87°. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images were acquired using a ZEISS ULTRA 55 microscope equipped with an X-ray detector (EDS). Raman spectra were recorded using a 514 nm excitation laser on a Horiba LabRAM HR Evolution spectrometer.