RBBR, AB129, AO7, RB5, lignin, and ABTS were purchased from Sigma (USA). Table 1 shows the characteristics of four synthetic dyes used in this study. Polypeptone and chloramphenicol were purchased from Hi-Media (India). Agar, glucose, MEA, Dzapex-dox broth and other chemicals were provided by Merck (Germany). (-1.39407, 104.36810) , point 2 and 3 Simpang Gajah (-1.44999, 104.34540; -1.45238,104.3285 ) and point 4 is located in Cemara beach (-1.406661, 104.45473)
Chloramphenicol
Manufactured by HiMedia
Sourced in India
Chloramphenicol is a laboratory reagent used for the identification and detection of bacterial species. It is a broad-spectrum antibiotic that inhibits protein synthesis in a wide range of bacterial organisms.
Automatically generated - may contain errors
Lab products found in correlation
Ampicillin, by HiMedia (41 mentions)
Ciprofloxacin, by HiMedia (36 mentions)
Tetracycline, by HiMedia (31 mentions)
Gentamicin, by HiMedia (25 mentions)
Cotrimoxazole, by HiMedia (25 mentions)
Ceftriaxone, by HiMedia (23 mentions)
Erythromycin, by HiMedia (20 mentions)
Amikacin, by HiMedia (16 mentions)
Cefotaxime, by HiMedia (16 mentions)
Streptomycin, by HiMedia (16 mentions)
Levofloxacin, by HiMedia (15 mentions)
Nalidixic acid, by HiMedia (15 mentions)
Ceftazidime, by HiMedia (14 mentions)
Gentamycin, by HiMedia (14 mentions)
Imipenem, by HiMedia (12 mentions)
Amoxicillin, by HiMedia (11 mentions)
Vancomycin, by HiMedia (11 mentions)
Azithromycin, by HiMedia (10 mentions)
Cefixime, by HiMedia (9 mentions)
Penicillin g, by HiMedia (9 mentions)
83 protocols using chloramphenicol
1
Synthetic Dye Characterization Protocol
2
Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing of Shigella
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Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done using Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method (3 ) for the antibiotics: ampicillin 10 µg, trimethoprim-sulphamethoxazole 1.25/23.75 µg, ciprofloxacin 5 µg, ceftriaxone 30 µg, tetracycline 30 µg, and chloramphenicol 30 µg (Himedia Laboratories, Mumbai). The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) for ciprofloxacin and ceftriaxone were performed using Epsilometer test (E-test) strips according to the manufacturer's instructions (AB Biomeriuex, India). The inoculum for the susceptibility testing and the interpretation were done as per CLSI (Clinical Laboratory Standards Institute) guidelines (3 ). ATCC Escherichia coli 25922 was used as the control for interpretation of zone diameters. Combination disc method according to CLSI guidelines was used in order to detect ESBL production in ceftriaxone-resistant Shigella isolates.
3
Klebsiella pneumoniae Identification and Antibiotic Susceptibility
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The isolates were identi ed by gram stain, standard biochemical methods (urease test, indole test, and carbohydrates fermentation test, motility test, and citrate utilization test) [37] [38], and by K. pneumoniae species-speci c primers (Table 1) targeting the 16S rRNA gene. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was done by the Kirby Bauer disc diffusion method on Mueller Hinton agar using the following antibiotics; cipro oxacin (5mcg), gentamicin (10mcg), ceftazidime (30mcg), imipenem (10mcg), and chloramphenicol (30) (HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd. Mumbai, India) [39] . E. coli ATCC 25922 and K. pneumonia (ATCC 700603) were used as quality control strains.
Capsule stain was used to detect capsule [40] . String test was used to differentiate between hvKp and cKp strains: if the grown colonies of K. pneumoniae form a string >5 mm in length using a sterile loop, this demonstrates the hypermucoviscosity phenotype [41] .
Capsule stain was used to detect capsule [40] . String test was used to differentiate between hvKp and cKp strains: if the grown colonies of K. pneumoniae form a string >5 mm in length using a sterile loop, this demonstrates the hypermucoviscosity phenotype [41] .
4
Antimicrobial Resistance Profiling of Virulent Isolates
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The isolates positive for at least one virulence marker gene by PCR were subjected to antimicrobial susceptibility test against the selected antimicrobials (ampicillin-10 μg, amikacin-10 μg, chloramphenicol-30 μg, ceftriaxone-10 μg, cephalexin-30 μg, ciprofloxacin-10 μg, co-trimoxazole-25 μg, cefoperazone-tazobactam-75 + 10 μg, meropenem-10 μg, norfloxacin-10 μg, gentamicin-10 μg, cefixime-5 μg, doxycycline hydrochloride-10 μg and ofloxacin-5 μg) (HiMedia, India) by disc diffusion method in Mueller–Hinton agar [18 (link)]. The performance of this test was checked by employing E. coli ATCC 25922 as a standard quality control strain. The results were expressed as sensitive, intermediate and resistant as per standard CLSI guidelines [19 ]. MDR was defined as “acquired non-susceptibility to at least one agent in three or more antimicrobial categories” [20 (link)].
5
Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing Protocol
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Antibiotic susceptibility testing was performed by modified Kirby Bauer's disc diffusion method on Mueller Hinton Agar medium according to the Clinical Laboratory Standard Institute guidelines (CLSI, 2013) . The antibiotics used were ciprofloxacin ((5 µg), cotrimoxazole (25 µg), cefotaxime (30 µg), ceftriaxone (30 µg), cefixime (10 µg), amikacin (30 µg), gentamycin (10 µg), ceftazidime (30 µg), cefoperazone/sulbactum (75/10 µg), meropenem (10 µg), piperacillin/tazobactam (100/10 µg), chloramphenicol (30 µg) (HiMedia, India). Suspension of bacteria maintained to 0.5 McFarland standards was inoculated on Mueller Hinton Agar (HiMedia, India) plates using sterile swabs, and then antibiotic discs were placed on it. The plates were incubated at 37 °C for 24 hours. The diameter of the zone of inhibition was measured and compared with standard strain. The results were interpreted as sensitive, intermediate, resistant according to CLSI (2013) guidelines. Pseudomonas (ATCC 27853) was used as standard control strains.
6
Antibiotic Susceptibility Screening of Isolates
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Antibiotic drug susceptibility was determined by spreading overnight grown culture of the isolates on MRS agar plates as a lawn. Standard antibiotic discs (tetracycline, erythromycin, ampicillin, gentamycin, penicillin, chloramphenicol, cefuroxime, cefoperazone, levofloxacin, norfloxacin, Hi-Media, Mumbai) were placed on the surface of the MRS agar medium aseptically. Plates were incubated for 24 h at 37 °C and observed for zones of inhibition.
7
Antibacterial and Antifungal Screening of Algae
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The sample of algae was collected from Lake in Udaipur. The chemicals used in the BG-11 medium were obtained from Hi-Media and Sigma-Aldrich. The following items were also obtained like Agar–agar from Hi-Media, Antibiotics (Penicillin G, Chloramphenicol, and Streptomycin sulphate) from Hi-Media, Silver nitrate from Merck, Muller-Hinton Agar (MHA) from Hi-Media, Potato Dextrose Agar from Hi-Media, and Methyl blue (MB) from LOBA Chemie. The Microbial Research Laboratory, Department of Botany at Mohanlal Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India, provided several strains for evaluating the antibacterial and antifungal properties. These strains include Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Proteus vulgaris, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Fusarium sp., and Curvularia sp.
8
Biofilm Formation on Food Processing Surfaces
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This methodology was conducted in accordance with Flach et al. (2014) and Bergamo et al. (2014) using different coupons: molds used for cheese production (polypropylene), hose (spiral PVC), beaker (polypropylene) and vacuum packaging (nylon/polyethylene), cut into shapes of 1 x 1 cm 2 . Before the experiments, a coupon sterilization process took place using ultraviolet radiation exposure in Biological Security Cabin Class II type A (Veco, Campinas, Brazil) for the period of 1 h.
Y. lipolytica isolates were grown on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) with chloramphenicol (Himedia, Mumbai, India) during 24 h at 32 °C. Young cultures were added to 5 mL of Tryptone Soya Broth (TSB -Himedia, Mumbai, India) originating a suspension with 10 6 CFU/mL, incubated at 32 °C for 24h. Then, 1 mL of this suspension was transferred for 9 mL of Peptone water 1 % (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). Subsequently, the coupons were added to this solution and incubated for 96 h at 35 °C. Finally, the coupons were washed three times with peptone water for removal of poorly adhered cells and were added to another flask containing 50 mL of this solution. The adhered cells were released from the coupon by sonication at a frequency of 40 KHz (Unique, Indaiatuba, Brazil) for 10 min. Decimal dilutions were spread on SCA plates for assessment of microbial growth.
Y. lipolytica isolates were grown on Sabouraud Dextrose Agar (SDA) with chloramphenicol (Himedia, Mumbai, India) during 24 h at 32 °C. Young cultures were added to 5 mL of Tryptone Soya Broth (TSB -Himedia, Mumbai, India) originating a suspension with 10 6 CFU/mL, incubated at 32 °C for 24h. Then, 1 mL of this suspension was transferred for 9 mL of Peptone water 1 % (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). Subsequently, the coupons were added to this solution and incubated for 96 h at 35 °C. Finally, the coupons were washed three times with peptone water for removal of poorly adhered cells and were added to another flask containing 50 mL of this solution. The adhered cells were released from the coupon by sonication at a frequency of 40 KHz (Unique, Indaiatuba, Brazil) for 10 min. Decimal dilutions were spread on SCA plates for assessment of microbial growth.
9
Antibiotic Susceptibility of Gram-Negative Bacteria
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The susceptibilities of Gram-negative bacteria (GNB) to the antimicrobial agents ampicillin (10 µg) amoxicillin/clavulanate (30 µg), cefuroxime (30 µg), cefotaxime (30 µg), chloramphenicol (30 µg), cotrimoxazole (25 µg), gentamicin (10 µg), amikacin (30 µg), ciprofloxacin (5 µg), tetracycline (30 µg) and levofloxacin (5 µg) (HiMedia Laboratories, India) were determined with Kirby-Bauer disc diffusion method in accordance with the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines [16 ]. Erythromycin (30 µg), oxacillin (30 µg), and vancomycin (30 µg) were included for Gram positive bacteria (GPB). The reference strain E. coli ATCC 25922 and Staphylococcus aureus ATCC 10221 were included as quality controls in the susceptibility assays. Relative to the panel of antibiotics tested for each isolate, and according to the international standard definitions for acquired resistance, multidrug resistant (MDR) phenotype was defined as in vitro non-susceptibility to ≥1 agent in ≥3 antimicrobial categories [17 (link)]: penicillins, cephalosporins, beta-lactamase inhibitor combinations, fluoroquinolones, aminoglycosides, chloramphenicol, folate pathway inhibitors, tetracyclines, macrolides and glycopeptides.
10
MIC Variation Under Gut Conditions
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MIC was determined to check the effect of infection-related in vitro gut conditions, such as bile, osmotic, high and low iron, pH and temperature conditions, on MIC variation in resistant and sensitive isolate by using Ezy MIC™ strips of ampicillin, co-trimoxazole, imipenem, nalidixic acid, ciprofloxacin, tetracycline, nitrofurantoin and chloramphenicol (HiMedia Laboratories Pvt. Ltd., Maharashtra, India). Both the isolates were grown up to mid-exponential phase (MEP) under in vitro gut conditions and swabbed onto Muller Hinton agar (MHA) plates. MIC strips were placed onto plates using an applicator followed by incubation at 37 °C for 16–18 h. The result was read where the ellipse intersects the MIC scale on the strip for the tested antibiotics.
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