Model 213

Children’s length and weight were measured using an infant scale with a length meter (Seca Model 336, 232, Germany) [21 ]. Mothers’ height and weight were measured using a mobile stadiometer (Seca Model 213, Germany) and digital weight measure (Tanita HD-654, Japan), respectively.

Covariates were selected according to the previous literature [12 (link),13 (link),24 (link),25 (link)] and a directed acyclic graph. Information on the women’s age, ethnicity, highest education attained, self-reported existing T2DM, and family history of T2DM were collected during recruitment. The women’s pre-pregnancy body mass index (BMI) was calculated as weight divided by height squared (kg/m²) on the basis of self-reported pre-pregnancy weight and height measured with a stadiometer (SECA model 213) at 26–28 weeks gestation. Parity was retrieved from hospital delivery records. At 26–28 weeks gestation, self-reported cigarette smoking and alcohol intake during pregnancy were ascertained; moderate and vigorous physical activity in the past 7 days were self-reported using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire [26 (link)] and categorized as follows: never, <150, and ≥150 min/week. Food and dietary supplement intakes were assessed using a single 24 h recall administered by trained research staff. Total fat intake was estimated using nutrient analysis software (Dietplan 6, Forestfield Software, Horsham, UK) on the basis of a food composition database containing local foods [27 (link)]. The use of dietary supplements (yes/no) containing any amount of preformed vitamin A (retinol or retinyl esters), carotenoids, and vitamin E or its vitamers were considered.

The weight, body fat percentage (Tanita, model BC418 MA) [47 ], and waist circumference of the workers were objectively measured. The waist circumference with millimeter precision was measured horizontally midway between the top edge of the hip and lower ribs using a measurement tape (Seca, model 201) [48 (link)]. The average of the two measurements was recorded. Height was measured without shoes using a stadiometer (Seca, model 213) to the nearest 0.1 cm while weight and fat percentage (%BF) were measured without shoes and socks using the Tanita (model BC418 MA) bio-impedance segmental body composition analyzer [47 ], to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1%, respectively. Their BMI (kg/m²) was calculated as weight (kg) divided by height (m) squared.

We assessed height using a stadiometer (model 213; Seca, Hamburg, Germany), with the participants standing barefoot on the scale, recording height measurements to the nearest millimeter. We measured body mass to the nearest 0.1 kg using a digital scale (model 874; Seca, Hamburg, Germany). All measurements were taken twice unless differences of >0.4 cm or 0.2 kg were detected, in which case, a third measurement was taken. The mean of 2 measurements or median of 3 was used in all analyses.

Height (cm) was recorded to the nearest 0.1 cm using a portable stadiometer (model 213; SECA GmbH, Hamburg, Germany). For participants who were chair-bound or bed-bound, ulna length was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm and validated equations were used to predict height [26 (link)]. Ulna length was chosen over demi-span, as it was an easier measure to complete for those with cognitive decline. Weight (kg) was taken to the nearest 0.1 kg using a portable, calibrated scale (model 813; SECA, Germany). The rest home’s calibrated chair hoist was used to measure the weight of non-weight bearing participants to the nearest 0.1 kg.