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All chemicals and solvents used were of the highest analytical grade available. Cell culture supplies and media, including PBS, sodium pyruvate, non-essential amino acids and penicillin–streptomycin, were obtained from Invitrogen (Carlsbad, CA, USA). Fetal bovine serum (FBS) was also obtained from Invitrogen. The anti-human Bax (N-20; 1:1,000), Bcl-2 (100; 1:1,000), MDM2 (SMP14; 1:500), PARP1 (H-250; 1:1,000), p21 (C19; 1:1,000), β-catenin (12F7; 1:2,000), Twist (Twist2C1a; 1:1,000) and Snai1 (G-7; 1:1,000) antibodies were from Santa Cruz Biotechnology Inc. (Santa Cruz, CA, USA). The anti-human p53 (Ab-6; 1:1,000) antibody was from EMD Chemicals Inc. (Gibbstown, NJ, USA). The anti-human N-cadherin (32/N-Cadherin; 1:1,000) and E-cadherin (36/E-Cadherin; 1:1,000) antibodies were from BD Biosciences (San Jose, CA, USA), and the anti-human vimentin (V9; 1:1,000) antibody was from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (St Louis, MO, USA). The anti-GST (GST01; 1:2,000) antibody was from ThermoFisher Scientific (Pittsburgh, PA, USA).