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1

Characterization of Biomass Samples via SEM

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Sawdust, charcoal and AC samples were attached to stubs with double adhesive coated carbon tabs (Ted Pella, Inc., Redding, CA, USA). Subsequently, the samples were sputtered with gold-palladium in a Denton Desk II coating unit (Denton Vacuum, LLC, Moorestown, NJ, USA) and then viewed and photographed in a Hitachi S-4700 field emission scanning electron microscope (FESEM). The FESEM micrographs were captured at 2650 × 1920-pixel resolution.
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2

Eggshell-derived SERS Substrates

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Fresh chicken eggs, obtained from the local supermarket, were gently broken. After removing the yolk and egg white, the shells were washed with water, and the middle region was considered for the subsequent substrate preparation. The white semipermeable SM was carefully peeled and cleaned with deionized water. The clean SM was dried in air at ambient conditions and then cut into small pieces (9 to 16 mm2). After removing the SM, the eggshell was split into pieces of ~4 to 9 mm2 area, and divided into two groups. The first group was washed with deionized water, dried by nitrogen flow, and used as the OS substrates. The second group was immersed in sodium hypochlorite for 2 min to remove the residual SM, and then treated with a graded series of ethanol for dehydration. This group was used as the IS substrates. All the three different eggshell regions were sputter coated (3 × 10−6 Torr, Denton Desk II, Denton Vacuum LLC, Moorestown, NJ, USA) by Au of different thicknesses to obtain the SERS substrates.
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3

Insect Wing Morphology Imaging

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Fore and hind wings were removed from the collected insects. Before SEM, they were air‐dried, positioned on SEM stubs and sputter coated with a 7 nm thick gold layer in a sputter‐coater (Denton Desk II, Denton Vacuum, Moorestown, NJ). In total, 15 wing specimens were imaged using a TESCAN MIRA3 field emission SEM (TESCAN, Brno, Czech Republic) at 15 kV.
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4

Compression Testing and Fracture Analysis

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The universal testing system (Instron 3360, Instron Co., High Wycombe, UK) was utilized for the compression test. The compression velocity was 1 mm/min and stopped when specimens fractured. The fractured specimens were then coated with gold/palladium with a sputter coater (Denton Desk II, Denton Vacuum, Moorestown, NJ, USA) and observed with a scanning electron microscopy (SU8010, Hitachi High-tech Co., Tokyo, Japan) to characterize the cracked specimen surface [18 (link),19 (link),20 (link)].
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5

Characterization of Starch Granule Morphology

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The morphology and particle size of the starch granules was investigated using scanning electron microscopy. Powder starch samples were evenly sprinkled on double sided adhesive tape and were attached to a circular specimen aluminum stub. The samples were coated with a 10 nm thick coating of gold using gold sputter coater (Desk II, Denton Vacuum). Photomicrographs were taken by Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscope (JSM-6500F, JEOL Ltd., Japan) using 5.0 kV of accelerated voltage and a 10 mm of working distance. The size of starch granules were estimated using Image J, image analyzer, software. Randomly, thirty granules were selected and their length and width were measured from the micrographs.
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6

Characterization of 3D Bioplotted Scaffolds

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The 3D bioplotted scaffolds used for scanning electron microscopy (SEM) imaging contained PLGA, collagen, and nHA. The scaffold samples were sputter-coated with a 20 nm layer of gold in a Denton Desk II sputter unit. The microscopy measurements were then performed using a Zeiss Supra 35 VP SEM at an 8 mm working distance and an electron high-tension voltage of 5 kV [20 (link)].
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7

Visualizing Bacterial-Epithelial Interactions

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The MUC2-producing human colonic carcinoma cell line LS174T ATCC CL-188 (ATCC) was grown in DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum at 37°C and 5% CO2. Approximately 1 × 105 cells were seeded onto Corning Costar 24-well culture plates containing poly-l-lysine-coated coverslips and grown to confluence. B. dentium was incubated with confluent coverslips at 2 × 105 bacteria and incubated for 1 h anaerobically at 37°C. Coverslips were then washed thoroughly with PBS (3 times) and fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in PBS for 1 h at room temperature. Coverslips were dehydrated with ethanol and coated in 20 nm of gold using a desktop sputtering system (Denton Desk II). Slides were viewed in a scanning electron microscope (FEI XL-30FEG) at 12 kV.
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8

Imaging and SEM Analysis of Cellular Samples

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Following imaging, the wells of the slides were washed gently with PBS containing Mg2+ and Ca2+ (2x) and fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in PBS for 1 h at room temperature as previously described [42 ]. The black compartment of the CELLview slide was detached, the slide was dehydrated with ethanol, and coated in 20 nm of gold using a desktop sputtering system (Denton Desk II). All slides were viewed in a FEI XL-30FEG SEM microscope operated with an electron beam acceleration voltage of 12 kV [42 ].
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9

SEM Analysis of Resin-Dentin Interface

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The polymerized resin discs after contact with bacterial culture and nisin particles were observed using SEM to analyze the presence of S. mutans. The fractured surface of the dentin sticks along the bonded interface was also observed using SEM in order to investigate the morphology and to study the mode of failure after microtensile bond strength.
The specimens were placed in aluminum stubs, covered with gold/palladium (Desk II—Denton Vacuum) and were examined in a scanning electron microscope (JMS 5310—Jeol).
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10

SEM and EDS Analysis of Dentin

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Specimens were metalized (Desk II, Denton Vacuum, Moorestown, New Jersey, USA) and prepared for SEM (INSPECT S50-FEI, Brno, Czech Republic) and energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS) (Esprit 1.9 Bruker, Schwarzschildstr, Berlin, Germany). The SEM (1000x) reading was held after the treatments and to the erosive challenge, and EDS analysis was performed after the treatment of the dentin.
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