Glucosamine (GLC; D-glucosamine hydrochloride, biotech grade, CAS number: 66-84-2) was purchased from Shanghai McLean Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China).
Metformin was purchased from Sino-US Shanghai Squibb Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd. (CAS number: ABH5474) (Shanghai, China).
The primary antibodies used were an anti-TLR4 monoclonal antibody (66350-1-Ig, 1:1000), anti-CD14 monoclonal antibody (60253-1-Ig, 1:1000), anti-MYD88 monoclonal antibody (67969-1-Ig, 1:1000), anti-GAPDH polyclonal antibody (10494-1-AP, 1:5000), anti-ZO-1 polyclonal antibody (21773-1-AP, 1:100), anti-Occludin polyclonal antibody (27260-1-AP, 1:100), and anti-Claudin-1 polyclonal antibody (13050-1-AP, 1:500). The above antibodies were purchased from Proteintech (Wuhan, China). An anti-NF-κB p65 polyclonal antibody (ab16502, 1:1000) and anti-NF-κB p65 (phosphor-S536) polyclonal antibody (ab76302, 1:1000) were purchased from Abcam Company (Cambridge, UK).