Mueller-Hinton broth was purchased from Sigma-Aldrich and Tween 80 from Merck-Schuchardt. The solvents used in this work were ethanol (>99.9%) from Panreac, toluene (>99.5%) from Riedel-de Häen, MTBE (>99.5%) from Fluka Analytical, and glycerol solution (86–89%) from Sigma-Aldrich. The antibiotics were levofloxacin and teicoplanin whilst the efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) used were thioridazine and omeprazole, all from Sigma-Aldrich.
Teicoplanin
Manufactured by Merck Group
Sourced in United States, United Kingdom, Switzerland
Teicoplanin is a glycopeptide antibiotic used in the laboratory setting. It acts as an antimicrobial agent effective against gram-positive bacteria.
Automatically generated - may contain errors
Lab products found in correlation
Vancomycin, by Merck Group (22 mentions)
Linezolid, by Merck Group (9 mentions)
Ampicillin, by Merck Group (6 mentions)
Levofloxacin, by Merck Group (4 mentions)
Penicillin, by Merck Group (4 mentions)
Daptomycin, by Merck Group (4 mentions)
Erythromycin, by Merck Group (3 mentions)
Glutaraldehyde, by Merck Group (3 mentions)
Boric acid, by Merck Group (3 mentions)
N hydroxysuccinimide, by Merck Group (3 mentions)
Clindamycin, by Merck Group (3 mentions)
Rifampicin, by Merck Group (3 mentions)
Oxacillin, by Merck Group (3 mentions)
Gentamycin, by Merck Group (2 mentions)
Tigecycline, by Pfizer (2 mentions)
Dalbavancin, by Sanofi (2 mentions)
Crystal violet, by Merck Group (2 mentions)
Ammonium hydroxide, by Merck Group (2 mentions)
Sodium hydroxide (naoh), by Merck Group (2 mentions)
Ammonium formate, by Merck Group (2 mentions)
38 protocols using teicoplanin
1
Antibiotic Susceptibility Testing with EPIs
2
Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Enterococcus faecalis
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The minimal inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of 8 antimicrobial agents were determined by the agar dilution method, and tigecycline and daptomycin by broth microdilution. The antimicrobial agents tested included linezolid (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis, MO, USA), vancomycin (Sigma), teicoplanin (Sigma), levofloxacin (Sigma), erythromycin (Sigma), tigecycline (Pfizer, NY, USA), daptomycin (Cubist Pharmaceuticals, MA, USA), penicillin (Sigma), ampicillin (Sigma) and gentamycin (Sigma). E. faecalis ATCC 29212 was used for quality control in antimicrobial susceptibility testing. The results of susceptibility testing were interpreted according to CLSI guideline M100-S27. Isolates resistant to three or more antibiotics of different families were considered to be multi-drug resistant (MDR).
3
Antibiotic MICs and MBCs in S. aureus
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MICs of vancomycin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), teicoplanin (Sigma-Aldrich, USA), and dalbavancin (kindly gifted by Sanofi, Italy) toward S. aureus were determined by the broth dilution method, according to the guidelines of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute [57 ]. The antibiotics were prepared by dissolving the corresponding powder in deionized water, filtered with a cut-off of 0.22 µm, and finally brought to appropriate dilution with MHB2. Ca. 5.0 × 105 bacterial cells in exponential growth were inoculated in MHB2, together with increasing concentrations of the antibiotics. MICs were defined as the minimal antibiotic concentration at which no turbidity could be detected after incubation for 20 h at 37 °C and 200 rpm. For calculating MBCs, 0.1 mL of bacterial cultures used for the MIC test were plated on MHA (Müller Hinton Agar, VWR International S.r.l., USA), then incubated at 37 °C for 24 h. MBCs were the lowest antibiotic concentrations, at which no growth could be observed.
4
Nanoparticle Synthesis and Characterization
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All chemical reagents, including acetonitrile (CH3CN), ammonium formate (HCOONH4), ammonium hydroxide (NH4OH), APTES, boric acid (H3BO3), crystal violet (C25N3H30Cl), 2′,7′-dichlorodihydrofluorescein (DCFH-DA), N-(3-dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride (EDC), ethanol (C2H6O), ferric nitrate [Fe(NO3)3 × 9H2O], formaldehyde (CH2O), glutaraldehyde (C5H8O2), iron dichloride (FeCl2 × 4H2O), iron trichloride (FeCl3 × 6H2O), N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS), nitric acid (HNO3), osmium tetroxide (OsO4), phosphate-buffered saline (PBS), sodium cacodylate (C2H7AsO2), sodium chloride (NaCl), sodium hydroxide (NaOH), sodium 2-(N-morpholino)ethanesulfonic acid hemisodium salt (MES), and teicoplanin, were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich, Milan, Italy. The LIVE/DEAD BacLight fluorescence assay kit was purchased by Thermo Fisher Scientific, Monza, Italy. Epon-Araldite 812 was purchased from Electron Microscopy Sciences, Hatfield, PA, United States. All the chemical reagents were used without additional purification.
5
Production and Characterization of Anti-Waddlia Antibodies
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Polyclonal rabbit antibodies against W. chondrophila were produced in our laboratory as described previously [44 (link)]. Secondary antibody, Alexa Fluor® 488 donkey anti-rabbit IgG, was purchased from Thermo Fisher Scientific (Waltham, MA, USA). Clavulanic acid, deferoxamine, mecillinam, novobiocin, penicillin, phosphomycin, piperacillin, teicoplanin, and 2,2′-bipyridyl were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA). Vancomycin was obtained from AppliChem (Darmstadt, Germany). MP265 was purchased from American Custom Chemicals Corporation (San Diego, CA, USA). All drugs were diluted in deionized water with the exception of MP265 and 2,2′-bipyridyl, which were diluted in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO, AppliChem) and in ethanol, respectively, in order to obtain the specific concentrations described in Table 1 . Finally, the solutions were filtered through a 0.22 μm pore filter and stored at −20 °C.
6
Antibiotic Compounds Procurement Protocol
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Ciprofloxacin hydrochloride was purchased from MP Biomedicals (Santa Ana, CA, USA); erythromycin hydrochloride, vancomycin hydrochloride, ampicillin, ceftriaxone sodium, levofloxacin, imipenem monohydrate, gentamicin sulfate, tetracycline hydrochloride, colistin sulfate, penicillin G potassium, teicoplanin, linezolid, clindamycin hydrochloride, and metronidazole were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (St Louis, MO, USA); meropenem was purchased from TCI (Portland, OR, USA); and daptomycin and fidaxomicin were purchased from Selleckchem (Houston, TX, USA).
7
Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Enterococci
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The antimicrobial susceptibilities of 175 E. faecalis and 67 E. faecium strains were examined by using the disk agar diffusion (DAD) method in accordance with the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) guidelines.17 18 Erythromycin (15 µg), Tetracycline (30 µg), Ciprofloxacin (5 µg), Vancomycin (30 µg), Teicoplanin (30 µg), Norfloxacin (10 µg), Nitrofurantoin (300 µg), Quinopristin-Dalfopristin [Synercid (15 µg)] (Mast Co., UK), Chloramphenicol (30 µg), Gentamicin (10 µg), Linezolid (30 µg), and Ampicillin (10 µg) (HiMedia Mumbai Co., India) were used for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST).
In addition, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the glycopeptide antibiotics i.e. Vancomycin and Teicoplanin (Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, Co., UK) against the E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates were determined using the microdilution broth method.17 18
E. faecalis ATCC 29212 (Vancomycin sensitive), E. faecalis ATCC 51299 (vanB positive), E. faecalis E206 (vanA positive) were used as quality control.
In addition, minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) of the glycopeptide antibiotics i.e. Vancomycin and Teicoplanin (Sigma-Aldrich, Poole, Co., UK) against the E. faecalis and E. faecium isolates were determined using the microdilution broth method.17 18
E. faecalis ATCC 29212 (Vancomycin sensitive), E. faecalis ATCC 51299 (vanB positive), E. faecalis E206 (vanA positive) were used as quality control.
8
Antimicrobial Susceptibility of Bacterial Isolates
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Ceftobiprole was provided by Basilea Pharmaceutica International Ltd. (Basel, Switzerland); ceftaroline, linezolid and tigecycline by Pfizer Inc. (New York, NY, USA); daptomycin by Novartis (Basel, Switzerland). Penicillin, ampicillin, amoxicillin, imipenem, vancomycin, teicoplanin, gentamicin and streptomycin were purchased commercially (Sigma Chemical Co., ST. Louis, MO, USA). MICs were determined by broth microdilution and interpreted according to the European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) clinical breakpoints (http://www.eucast.org/clinical_breakpoints/ ) (EUCAST, 2021 ). In the absence of EUCAST clinical breakpoints, those of the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute were applied (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute, 2021 ).
9
Broth Microdilution Antibiotic Susceptibility Assay
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The procedure for broth microdilution was adapted from the CLSI protocol for antimicrobial susceptibility testing (Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute [CLSI], 2009 ). Antibiotic solutions were prepared in LAB susceptibility media (90% LSM and 10% MRS broth, adjusted to pH 6.7) (Klare et al., 2005 (link)). The following antibiotics were tested: ampicillin, chloramphenicol, clindamycin, erythromycin, fusidic acid, gentamycin, kanamycin, linezolid, streptomycin, teicoplanin, trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (1/19), and vancomycin (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, United States). The antibiotic susceptibility tests and their interpretations were carried out according to the CLSI guidelines (British Society for Antimicrobial Chemotherapy [BSAC], 2014 ; Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute [CLSI], 2016 ).
10
Antineoplastic and Antibiotic Agents Evaluation
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The antineoplastic agents tested were the following: mitomycin C from Streptomyces caespitosus supplied by Sigma (Buchs, Switzerland); cyclophosphamide from Baxter Oncology GmbH (Halle, Germany); etoposide from PCH Pharmachemie (Haarlem, The Netherlands); methotrexate from Faulding Pharmaceuticals (Warwickshire, UK). The antibiotics used were the glycopeptides vancomycin and teicoplanin, the oxazolidinone linezolid, the synthetic fluoroquinolone levofloxacin, and the carboxyfluoroquinoline ciprofloxacin, all from Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA).
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