Rint ultima pc

The synthesized powder samples were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD; Rigaku RINT Ultima/PC with monochromated Cu–Kα radiation, Tokyo, Japan). Crystallite size of the obtained particles was estimated using the Scherrer equation (D = Kλ/βcosθ), where D, K, λ, and θ indicate crystallite size, Scherrer constant (0.90), X-ray wavelength (1.54 Å), and Bragg angle, respectively. The tin oxide samples were analyzed using XPS (XPS; ULVAC, Quantera SXM, Chigasaki, Japan). Nanostructures were characterized using SEM (HITACHI S-4800, Tokyo, Japan) and TEM (JEM-2100, Tokyo, Japan). Ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectra were obtained from the diffuse reflectance of the powder samples using a Hitachi U-4000 spectrophotometer. TG-DTA analysis in air flow was carried out using DTG 60H (SHIMADZU, Kyoto, Japan). The ramping rate was 10 °C/min. A confocal Raman microscope, RAMANtouch (Nanophoton Corp., Tokyo, Japan), was used to analyze the tin oxide samples. The powder samples were irradiated with laser light of 532 nm, and the laser power was adjusted to 5 mW/cm².

SnO₂ powder samples were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD; Rigaku RINT Ultima/PC with monochromated Cu–Kα radiation, Tokyo, Japan). The crystallite size of the SnO₂ aggregates was estimated using the Scherrer equation (D = Kλ/βcosθ) based on the XRD data, where D, K, λ, and θ indicate the crystallite size, Scherrer constant (0.90), X-ray wavelength (1.54 Å), and Bragg angle, respectively. The SnO₂ sample surface was analyzed by XPS (XPS; ULVAC, Quantera SXM, Kanagawa, Japan). Nanostructure analysis was carried out by TEM (JEM-2100, Tokyo, Japan). The Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area was evaluated by N₂ physisorption measurement at 77 K, using the Micromeritics TriStar II 3020 (Kyoto, Japan). Photoabsorption spectra were measured using a Hitachi U-4000 spectrophotometer. Ultraviolet–visible (UV–Vis) spectra were obtained from the diffuse reflectance of the dry powder samples.

SnO₂-based solid solution nanoparticles were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD, Rigaku RINT Ultima/PC with monochromated Cu–Kα radiation, Tokyo, Japan). The analysis of the nanostructures was performed by means of TEM (JEM-2100, JEOL, Tokyo, Japan). The diffuse reflectance spectra of the nanoparticles were obtained using a UV–Vis spectrophotometer (V-770, Jasco, Tokyo, Japan). A surface and cross-sectional image of ETL/FTO substrates were obtained using SEM (S-4800, Hitachi High-Tech Corporation, Tokyo, Japan).