Pgc 1α

TFA and Metformin were bought from Pusi Biotecnology (Chengdu, Sichuan, China, purity: ≥ 90.0%) and GBCBIO technology (Guangzhou, Guangdong, China), respectively. Detection kits for AGEs, 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin, 5-HT), amyloid β peptide 1–42, amyloid β peptide 1–40, and lipopolysaccharide (LPS) were purchased from Nanjing Jiancheng Bioengineering Institute (Nanjing, Jiangsu, China). Kits for interleukin-1β (IL-1β), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) were derived from Solarbio (Beijing, China). Primary-antibodies including postsynaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), Synapsin I a/b, estrogen receptor β (ERβ), heat shock proteins 60 (HSP60), heat shock proteins 70 (HSP70), and caseinolytic protease (CLPP) were purchased from Santa Cruz (Dallas, TX, USA); phospho-AMPK, AMPK, CREB and phospho-CREB were from Cell Signaling (USA); advanced glycosylation end product-specific receptor (RAGE), Lon protease (LONP1) and β-actin were from Proteintech (Chicago, USA); PGC-1α was from Bioss (Beijing, China); ZO-1, Claudin 5, and Occludin were from Invitrogen (California, USA); GABA A Receptor beta 1 (GABAR β), glucagon-like peptide 1 (GLP-1) were obtained from Affinity Biosciences (USA). Other materials and reagents were from commercial sources.

Sea Buckthorn Proanthocyandins (SBP), were provided by Puredia Limited (Qinghai, China). SBP were extracted from the fruits of sea buckthorn by water extraction and macroporous resin column chromatography, trademarked as CyanthOx™. The purity of SBP was 91.5% comparing with the standard of proanthocyanidins. They were mainly composed of (-)-epicatechin gallate, b-type proanthocyanidins, (+)-gallocatechin-(+)-catechin, and (+)-gallocatechin dimer (Chakrabarty et al., 2018 (link)). Fetal bovine serum was purchased from PAN-Biotech GmbH (Aidenbach, Germany). RPMI1640 medium was purchased from BasalMedia Technologies (Shanghai, China). Mito-Tracker Green (C1048) and MitoTracker Red CMXRos (C1049B) were obtained from the Beyotime Institute of Bio-technology (Shanghai, China). Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore Assay Kit (C2009S), Cell Mitochondria Isolation Kit (C3601), and ATP Assay Kit (S0026) were purchased from Beyotime Biotechnology, Shanghai, China. The glucose quantification kit was purchased from Applygen, Beijing, China. The antibodies of HO-1, p-AMPK, and p-Nrf2 were purchased from Cell Signaling Technology (Shanghai, China). PGC-1α was purchased from Bioss Inc. (Woburn, America).

The primary antibodies to AMPK (1:1,000 dilution, sc-25792; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., TX, USA), p-AMPKα1/2 (Thr183/172) (1:1,000 dilution, sc-101630; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ, 1:1,000 dilution, ab209350; Abcam, Cambridge, UK), CPT-1 (H40) (1:1,000 dilution, sc-98834; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc.), GLUT-4 (1:500 dilution, bs-0384R; Bioss Antibodies, MA, USA), PGC-1α (1:500 dilution, bs-1832R; Bioss Antibodies), Bax (1:1,000 dilution, ab32503; Abcam), Bcl-2 (1:500 dilution, bs-0032R; Bioss Antibodies), caspase-3 (1:500 dilution, bs-2593R; Bioss Antibodies), and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) goat anti-rabbit (IgG) secondary antibody (1:5,000 dilution, BV-S8008; BIOVAL, CA, USA) were used. To document the loading controls, the membrane was reported with a primary antibody against anti-rabbit HRP secondary antibody. The signals were quantified by scanning densitometry and computer-assisted image analysis.