The interfacial tensions between PLGA/DCM and PVA/water (i.e. γ12) as well as PCL/DCM with PVA/water (i.e. γ23) were determined with an optical contact angle measuring and contour system (OCA 15Pro, DataPhysics, US) using the pendant drop method.32 (link) Briefly, a droplet of PLGA/DCM or PCL/DCM immersed in PVA/water hanging on a dosing needle was imaged using a camera. The dimension/shape of the droplet was subsequently analyzed with the DataPhysics SCA 22 software module based on the Young–Laplace's equation33 (link) to determine the interfacial tension. On the other hand, the interfacial tension between PLGA and PCL (i.e. γ13) was estimated based on the surface energy of PLGA and PCL according to the Owens–Wendt method (Table S1† ). Briefly, two standard solutions cyclohexane and water were used to measure their contact angles with PLGA and PCL films using the optical contact angle measuring and contour system (OCA 15Pro, DataPhysics, US). The interfacial energy and thus the interfacial tension were calculated based on the contact angles determined. All measurements were done in triplicates.
Oca 15pro
Manufactured by Dataphysics
Sourced in Germany, United States
The OCA 15Pro is a contact angle measuring instrument used for the characterization of surface wettability. It provides precise measurements of static, dynamic, and advancing/receding contact angles on a variety of solid surfaces.
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32 protocols using oca 15pro
1
Interfacial Tensions of PLGA, PCL, and PVA Solutions
2
Biofilm Assay Protocols on Glass and Plastic
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In this study, we utilized laboratory glass tubes and laboratory polystyrene culture plates to represent the common material categories glass and plastic, respectively. Biofilm assays were conducted using borosilicate glass tubes (SCHOTT AG, DURAN, Mainz, Germany), borosilicate glass coverslips (BRAND GmbH, Wertheim, Germany), polystyrene cell culture plates with a flat bottom (F-bottom, declared hydrophilic) (TPP, Transadingen, Switzerland), and mid-binding 8-strips polystyrene cell culture plates with a U-shaped bottom (U-bottom, declared hydrophobic) (Greiner, Frickenhausen, Germany). The water contact angle was measured using a contact angle goniometer OCA 15 Pro (Dataphysics, Filderstadt, Germany). The measurements were performed with 5 µL water droplets at the inner surface of the polystyrene well plates in ambient conditions. We performed eight measurements for each material. For contact angles below 90°, the surface is considered hydrophilic. Contact angles larger than 90° are considered hydrophobic [37 ]. In this study, we declared the F-bottom plates hydrophilic and the U-bottom plateshydrophobic.
3
Evaluating Surface Wettability of Materials
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The surface wettability was evaluated by measuring the contact angle of 1 μL deionized water droplet using a surface-wettability survey device (OCA15Pro, Dataphysics, Filderstadt, Germany). For each sample, five locations were randomly chosen for the measurement.
4
Static Water Contact Angle Measurement
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Contact angles were measured with an OCA15 Pro (Data Physics, Filderstadt, Deutschland) using the sessile drop method. Static contact angles were measured using 5 µL water droplets at a temperature of 25 °C.
5
Static Water Contact Angle Measurement
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Contact angles were measured using an OCA 15 Pro (Dataphysics, Rock Hill, SC, USA). The surfaces were cleaned with ethanol before measuring. Droplets of water (5 µL) were applied to the surface and the static contact angle was measured.
6
Contact Angle and Surface Characterization
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The contact angle data of droplets (2 μL) were collected by a drop shape analyzer (Dataphysics OCA15Pro) at ambient temperature. AFM images were recorded on an Oxford Cypher VRS. SEM images were monitored using a HITACHI SU-8010 SEM device.
7
Characterization of TFN-GO Membrane Morphology
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The morphology of the cross-section and active layer of the TFN-GO membranes was observed with SEM. The membranes were first dried in an oven for 24 h to remove moisture. The membranes were then fractured using liquid nitrogen to get a consistent and clean cut of the membrane cross-section for imaging. All the samples were sputter-coated with platinum before observation.
Atomic force microscopy in tapping mode was used to analyse the surface roughness of the membrane and to render three-dimensional images of the surface. Small parts of the membranes with approximately 1 cm−2 were cut and glued on a glass substrate.
The functional groups of the membranes were examined by FTIR in attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mode (Spectrum 65, PerkinElmer Inc., CA, USA). The spectrum for each sample was scanned 32 times from 450 cm−1 to 4000 cm−1 with 4 cm−1 resolutions.
The contact angle (CA) of the membranes was measured with a contact angle instrument (OCA 15Pro, Dataphysics Instruments Gmbh, Filderstadt, Germany). Ten measurements were carried out at random locations on the active layer of the membrane to yield the average value.
Atomic force microscopy in tapping mode was used to analyse the surface roughness of the membrane and to render three-dimensional images of the surface. Small parts of the membranes with approximately 1 cm−2 were cut and glued on a glass substrate.
The functional groups of the membranes were examined by FTIR in attenuated total reflectance (ATR) mode (Spectrum 65, PerkinElmer Inc., CA, USA). The spectrum for each sample was scanned 32 times from 450 cm−1 to 4000 cm−1 with 4 cm−1 resolutions.
The contact angle (CA) of the membranes was measured with a contact angle instrument (OCA 15Pro, Dataphysics Instruments Gmbh, Filderstadt, Germany). Ten measurements were carried out at random locations on the active layer of the membrane to yield the average value.
8
Characterization of Superhydrophobic Cotton Fabric Filters
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The water contact angle (WCA) was employed to evaluate the superhydrophobicity of the fabricated cotton fabric filters, which was measured using a goniometer (OCA15 Pro, Data-Physics, Filderstadt, Germany) with a 2 μL distilled water droplet as the indicator at room condition. Fourier transform infrared spectrometer (FTIR, Nicolet iS10, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA) was employed to identify the functional groups on the filter surface. Moreover, the scanning electron microscopy images were captured at 15 kV to study the surface morphology of the cotton fabrics, whereas the energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX, S-3400N, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) was used to perform the elemental analysis of the modified cotton fabric. Besides, the surface composition of the prepared superhydrophobic filter was studied via X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, K-Alpha, Thermo Scientific, USA). Besides, atomic force microscopy (AFM, NX10, Park Systems, Santa Clara, CA, USA) was employed to determine the surface roughness of the filter.
9
Contact Angle Measurement Procedure
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Contact angle measurements were performed on a Data Physics Instruments OCA15 Pro setup. Each sample was subjected to 2–5 µL milliQ water drops deposited by a thin computer-assisted stainless-steel pipette. For each point, a new position on the sample was selected to reduce crosslinking effects between subsequent measurements. Background illumination was provided by a white-LED array which maximized contrast for the detection camera. The evaluation was performed by fitting a straight line to the sample surface and selecting different points on the drop surface to achieve a fitting curve for the droplet shape. The contact angle was then determined by the evaluation software SCA202.
10
Surface Wettability Characterization
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The fabricated channels (before and after thermal annealing) were characterized by Optical Microscopy (OM, ZEISS Axio Imager.Z2m), Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM, ZEISS EVO MA10) and surface stylus profilometer (Bruker, DektakXT). The measurement of contact angles for water, n-heptane and propylene carbonate (5 µL) on a SiO2 substrate was conducted using a contact angle analyzer apparatus (OCA 15 pro, DataPhysics) under ambient temperature conditions. Contact angles were measured at five different positions and the reported value represents the average.
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