Thermogravimetric analyser

A differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) (Q2000, TA Instruments, New Castle, DE, USA) was operated with a heating and cooling rate of 10 °C min⁻¹ from 30 °C to 250 °C in an N₂ atmosphere. T_g was determined at the second heating cycle. Thermal degradation was evaluated using a thermogravimetric analyser (PerkinElmer, Waltham, MA, USA) under a nitrogen purge flow of 50 mL min⁻¹. Samples were scanned from room temperature to 800 °C with a heating rate of 10 °C min⁻¹. CTE was measured using a thermomechanical analysis (TMA) instrument (TA Instruments) with a probe force of 20 mN and a heating rate of 10 °C min⁻¹ in a temperature range from 30 °C to 250 °C under an N₂ flow. The film specimens for the TMA testing had a length, width, and thickness of 15 mm, 5 mm, and 70 μm, respectively.

Thermogravimetric analysis was carried out on a thermogravimetric analyser (PerkinElmer, Buckinghamshire, UK) at a heating rate of 10 °C/min using nitrogen as a purge gas to analyse the lignin, biopolymer blends, and composites. The TGA was conditioned to increase the temperature linearly from room temperature to 900 °C under nitrogen flow. The temperature of the sample was monitored, and the sample’s weight loss was expressed in terms of percentage weight loss.