Xplora raman spectrometer

The Raman spectra of pure rosehip extract, Phospholipon (a commercial mixture of phospholipids), empty liposomes, rosehip extract-loaded liposomes, as well as the UV irradiation exposed counterparts, were collected using an XploRA Raman spectrometer (Horiba Jobin Yvon, Palaiseau, France) equipped with microscope Olympus BX51 in the spectral range from 250 to 3500 cm⁻¹. Raman scattering was excited by a laser at a wavelength of 532 nm equipped with 1200 lines mm⁻¹ grating, spectra were recorded by applying 120 acquisition time, using a 100% filter. Autocalibration was performed using the 520.47 cm⁻¹ Raman frequency shift in silicon. In order to assess a possible sample inhomogeneity, ten spectra were recorded for each investigated sample. The spectra pre-processing was realized using Spectrograph software [70 ].

The morphology of pure ZnO and mixed ZnO–CuO composite nano-surfaces were analysed by the Quanta 200 Scanning Electron Microscope (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Hillsboro, OR, USA). The samples were coated with a thin layer of Au prior to analysis.
AFM was used to examine the topology of the different nano-surfaces using Bruker Innova Atomic Force Microscope (Bruker UK limited, Conventry, UK) with an antimony (n) doped silicon tip. Each AFM image was analysed using the NanoScope Analysis software (version 1.8). Image surface areas were compared within a 3 $\mathsf{\mu }$ m by 3 $\mathsf{\mu }$ m scan area. Calculation of the total surface area and mean roughness (Ra) within the scanned region provided a method of comparing the roughness of the various nano-surfaces.
Raman spectroscopy was used to analyse the chemical compositions of the pure 1% ZnO and mixed 1% ZnO–CuO (1:2) nano-surfaces. An XploRA Raman spectrometer from Horiba (HORIBA UK Limited, Northampton, UK), equipped with a confocal microscope, was used. The Raman signals were collected in a range of 0–3500 cm ${}^{-1}$ using a 785 nm red laser excitation. The laser beam was focused on the sample using objective magnification of 50×.
A Kruskal-Wallis test was used to analyse the data and level of significance was defined as p ≤ 0.05.

The morphology of CeO₂, Cr@CeO₂, and Fe@CeO₂ NPs was analyzed by HRTEM (JEM-ARM200CF, JEOL Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) using an accelerating voltage of 200 kV. In addition, the distribution of the constituent elements within the NPs at the nanoscale was mapped using STEM-EDS (JED-2300T, JEOL Ltd., Japan). The XRD data were recorded in the range 20–100° in a scanning step of 0.02° for 0.3 s using a MiniFlex600 system (Rigaku, Tokyo, Japan) with Cu K_α radiation operated at 15 mA and 40 kV. Crystallite sizes and lattice parameters were calculated by Pawley refinement of the corresponding diffraction patterns using TOPAS software (Version 4.2, Bruker, Rheinstetten, Germany). Raman spectra were obtained using an XploRA Raman spectrometer (HORIBA, Kyoto, Japan) with a diode-pumped solid-state laser of 532 nm wavelength operating at 10 mW. The UV-Vis DRS experiments were performed on a UV-2600i UV-Vis spectrophotometer (Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) equipped with integrated spheres. To compare the electronic structure of CeO₂ and TM@CeO₂ NPs, we obtained Ce M-edge, O K-edge, Cr L-edge, and Fe L-edge spectra using XAS in the 8A1 beamline at the Pohang Accelerator Laboratory with a PHI-3057 electron analyzer (Physical Electronics, Chanhassen, MN, USA) under the base pressure of 2.0 × 10⁻⁹ Torr.