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The surface chemical composition of membranes was measured using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy (Perkin Elmer Spectrum 100 FTIR Spectrometer, Waltham, MA, USA) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, VG K-alpha ThermoFisher Scientific, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA). Membrane morphology and surface roughness were observed using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, S-4800, Hitachi Co., Tokyo, Japan) and atomic force microscopy (AFM, NanoScope^® V, Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA), respectively. The surface wetting characteristics of the membranes were measured using an automatic interfacial tensiometer (PD-VP Model, Kyowa Interface Science Co., Ltd., Niiza City, Saitama, Japan).

To generate data on surface structure, to be analyzed for chemical or functional groups present, attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy (Perkin Elmer Spectrum 100 FTIR Spectrometer, Waltham, MA, USA) was used. As to the analysis of surface elemental compositions, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, VG K-alpha ThermoFisher Scientific, Inc., Waltham, MA, USA) was employed. Differences in surface morphology were determined using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, S-4800, Hitachi Co., Tokyo, Japan). Surface roughness was evaluated using atomic force microscopy (AFM, FSM Nanoview 1000–2000, Labtrek S.r.l, Padova, Italy). The wettability of membranes in water was measured using an automatic interfacial tensiometer (PD-VP Model, Kyowa Interface Science Co. Ltd., Niiza-City, Saitama, Japan).

Surface chemical properties were analyzed using attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared (ATR-FTIR) spectroscopy (Perkin Elmer Spectrum 100 FTIR Spectrometer, Waltham, MA, USA) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, VG K-alpha ThermoFisher Scientific, Inc. Waltham, MA, USA). Surface morphology and cross-sectional images were captured using field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM, S-4800, Hitachi Co, Tokyo, Japan). Atomic force microscopy (AFM, NanoScope^® V, Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA) mapped the surface morphology to quantify the surface roughness (root mean square, Rq) of the membranes. The water contact angle of the membranes was measured using an automatic interfacial tensiometer (PD-VP Model, Kyowa Interface Science Co. Ltd., Niiza-City, Saitama, Japan). The surface charges of the membranes at pH 3, 7, and 11 were determined using SurPASS Electrokinetic Analyzer (Anton Paar, NSW, Australia).