Glass fiber

The PANI/Zn batteries were assembled using PANI film with stainless-steel substrates as the cathode, Zn foil (diameter: 15.6 mm, thickness: 50 μm) as the anode, and Whatman glass fiber as the separator in CR2032 coin cells. A 2 M quantity of Zn (CF₃SO₃)₂ was used as the aqueous electrolyte. All cells were assembled in the ambient environment. The electrochemical performance measurements were performed by a multichannel battery testing system (CT-4008, Neware, Shenzhen, China) with a voltage window of 0.3–1.8 V (vs. Zn²⁺/Zn) at 20 °C. The specific capacity was calculated based on the mass of PANI in cathode. CV curves were collected on an electrochemical workstation (CHI660, Chenhua, Shanghai, China) within the same voltage window at different scan rates from 0.1 to 1 mV s⁻¹. The electrochemical impedance spectra (EIS) were performed in a frequency range of 10⁻²~10⁵ Hz with an AC voltage amplitude of 5 mV (CHI660, Chenhua, Shanghai, China).

The K⁺ storage performance of RPNP@PEDOT and its control sample, RPNPs were measured with a half-cell KIB configuration. The CR2025 coin-type cells were assembled in an argon-filled glove box with both moisture and oxygen levels less than 0.1 ppm (Etelux Minilab glove box). K plates with diameters of 12 mm were used as counter electrodes. The work electrodes were prepared by mixing the active materials (80 wt%), super-P (10 wt%), and poly (vinyl difluoride) (PVDF, 10 wt%) pasting on a pure Cu foil for both KIB cell. Glass fiber (Whatman) films were used as separators for KIBs. The electrolyte used for KIBs was 1.0M KFSI in a 50:50 (v/v) mixture of ethylene carbonate (EC) and diethyl carbonate (DEC). The galvanostatic charge and discharge experiments were performed on a NEWARE multi-channel battery test system in the voltage range between 0.01 and 2.00 V vs. K/K⁺. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) profiles were obtained from the Autolab PGSTAT302N electrochemical workstation in the voltage range of 0.01–2.00 V vs. K/K⁺ at a scanning rate of 0.1 to 2.0 mV s⁻¹.

The purity Zn foil is 99.99% and the thickness is 0.2 mm. Ti₃C₂T_x MXene nanosheets were supplied by Q-Changing Technology Co., Ltd (Zhengzhou, China). ZnSO₄ was acquired from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd. V₂O₅ was purchased from J&K Scientific Ltd. The spectator is Whatman Glass Fiber with the thickness of 90 mm.

For the Na-ion half cells, 2032 coin-type cells were employed. The electrodes were obtained by applying a slurry mixture consisting of active materials (70 wt.%), Super-P (20 wt.%), and polyvinylidene difluoride (PVDF, 10 wt.%), to a copper foil and drying it under vacuum at 60 °C for 6 h. The loading of the active material on each disc was about 1.05–1.4 mg cm⁻². A sodium foil with a diameter of about 14 mm was prepared in a glove box under the protection of high-purity argon as a counter electrode using sodium block (Aladdin, 99.7%). The glass fiber (Whatman) was used as the separator and 1 M NaPF₆ dissolved in the diethyleneglycoldimethylether acted as electrolyte. To study the electrode performance of SnS₂/RGO for PIBs, CR 2016 coin batteries was built using SnS₂/RGO as anode, potassium metal was used as counter electrodes. The electrolyte was 3.0 M potassium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide (KFSI) in TGM. The anode was prepared by casting slurries of active material, super P and PVDF binder in a mass proportion of 7:2:1 onto copper foil with an active material loading of around 1.05–1.4 mg cm⁻². The galvanostatic charge/discharge tests were conducted on battery test station (LAND CT-2001A, Wuhan, China) from 0.01–3.0 V. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) tests (0.01–3.0 V) were carried on the CHI 760E electrochemical workstation.

The prepared TiO₂ | Ti and TiO₂ | FTO photoelectrodes were directly assembled as the cathodes in the traditional LIBs or SIBs. Typically, the anode is the lithium or sodium. The electrolyte is 1 M LiPF₆ dissolved in propylene carbonate (PC) or 1 M NaClO₄ in PC. The glass fiber (What-man) is used as the separator.