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The surface structural changes of the samples were examined using field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM, SUPRA/AURIGA, Carl Zeiss, Oberkochen, Germany) for 5000 and 20,000 magnification using High Resolution Digital Image Processing and Analysis System. To impart conductivity, the surface was coated with 20 nm thick platinum using a coating machine (Ion Sputter Coater, G20, GSEM, Suwon, Korea). Atomic force microscopy (AFM, NX-10, Park Systems, Suwon, Korea) was carried out to quantitatively analyze the nanostructures based on plasma etching. The nanoroughness was measured in the section of 3 μm × 3 μm of the specimen. Then, the range of 1 μm × 1 μm was randomly selected and the values of Ra and Rq were calculated by XEI software. Kawabata surface roughness meter (KES-FB4-A Surface Tester, Kato Tech Co., Ltd., Kyoto, Japan) was used to assess the microroughness of the fabric and film based on their weave density. To analyze the changes in the surface components based on plasma etching and thermal aging, the changes in the carbon and oxygen composition up to 10 nm of the surface were analyzed using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (AXIS-his, Kratos Analytical, Manchester, UK). The crystallinity and immunoreactivity were measured by X-ray diffractometers (New D8 Advance and D8 Discover, Bruker, Billerica, MA, USA).

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, AXIS His, Kratos Analytical Ltd., UK) was used to identify the chemical constituents of pristine and variously modified Ti surfaces. After immersed in 5 ml of PBS solution for 7days, the sample of Ti-PTL-HA-CS was determined by XPS to identify the chemical composition.
The contact angles of deionized water on the pristine and modified Ti surfaces were measured by the sessile drop method in a goniometer equipped with the drop-shape analysis system (JC2000D1, Micaren, China) at room temperature. Each Ti disc was measured three times to calculate the mean values of the contact angles.
The surface morphology of the pristine and decorated Ti was characterized by field-emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM, JSM-5600LV, JEOL, Japan) with a beam voltage of 15kV. All the samples were sputter-coated by gold before SEM observation except for the Ti discs modified with CS/AgNP. The chemical composition of the surface of the CS/AgNP discs was identified by energy dispersive X-ray detector (EDX, Japan).
The size and morphology of the Ag nanoparticles was observed by transmission electron microscopy (TEM, Philips CM20).

FE-SEM images were acquired using a JSM-7600F instrument (JEOL, Japan). XPS results were recorded on an AXIS-His (KRATOS, U.K.) without exposure to air atmosphere. The BBr₃-treated Li foil was washed with hexane to remove the residual BBr₃ for LiBr characterization and was washed with 1 M LiPF₆ in EC/DEC (50/50 = v/v) with 10 wt% FEC and with DEC to remove LiBr to characterize the naked Li surface. XRD analysis was performed in the 2θ range of 5° to 80° using a D8 Advance spectrometer (Bruker, Germany) from which ambient air was excluded. EBSD analysis was performed to determine the crystal orientation using an Oxford EBSD instrument (Oxford Instruments, U.K.) at the Research Institute of the Advanced Materials Research Center (RIAM) at Seoul National University. The electrical conductivity of the electrodeposited layer was measured in a glove box under Ar atmosphere using a digital multitester (HIOKI 3244-60, MISUMI, Japan). High resolution 3D XTM was performed to obtain 3D images of the electrodeposition layers using an Xradia 620 Versa instrument (Carl Zeiss, USA) at the National Centre for Inter-university Research Facilities (NCIRF) at Seoul National University. Li metal samples were sealed in airtight vials during the XTM analysis.

NGOs were readily synthesized from the graphite via Taylor-Couette flow^{62 (link)}. The morphology of synthesized NGO particles was analyzed with Cs corrected HRTEM (JEM-ARM200F, Cold FEG, JEOL Ltd, Japan) after loaded to a 400 mesh carbon-coated copper grid. The size distribution of NGOs was analyzed using a CPS Disc Centrifuge (CPS instruments, USA). Next, NGOs prepared on a sapphire wafer were scanned by atomic force microscopy in noncontact mode (scanned area 25 μm², XE-100, Park Systems, Republic of Korea). X-ray diffraction pattern of NGOs was obtained using SmartLab (Rigaku, Japan). The Raman spectrum of NGOs was obtained using 532 nm excitation laser (LabRAM HR Evolution, HORIBA, Japan). The powder of NGOs was subjected to X-ray photoelectron spectroscope (AXIS-His, Kratos, USA). FTIR spectrum of NGO was obtained by using FTIR Spectrophotometer (Nicolet 6700, Thermo Fisher Scientific, USA) with conventional KBr pellet method. A zeta potential of NGOs was analyzed using Zetasizer Nano ZSP (Malvern Instruments, England). For detecting NGOs, biotin (#14400, Sigma, USA) was conjugated to NGOs by EDC (#77149, Thermo Fisher Scientific) - NHS (#24525, Thermo Fisher Scientific) coupling.