Sodium hydroxide (naoh)

Cellulose nanofibers (CNFs, 2.0 wt%) were procured from Moorim Paper MFG Co., Ltd., South Korea. CNF suspension of 1 mmol/g with an average width of less than 100 nm and length of up to several micrometers. Fig. S1 (Supporting Information) represents the CNFs' TEM image and the length distribution. The width and length were measured from the TEM image. Vanillin (98 %), epichlorohydrin (ECH, 99 %), tetrabutylammonium bromide (TBAB, ≥99 %), 4, 4´-diaminodiphenyl methane (DDM, ≥97 %) were received from Sigma Aldrich. Anhydrous sodium sulfate (99 %) was procured from Yakuri Pure Chemicals Co., Ltd., Japan. Dichloromethane (DCM, >99.9 %) was obtained from Samchun, South Korea. Acetone (99.5 %), sodium hydroxide (97 %), and ethanol (99.5 %) were obtained from Daejung Chemical and Metals Co., Ltd., South Korea.

PEI (M_w = 50 kg mol⁻¹, 50 wt.% in H₂O, Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA), PAA (M_w = 100 kg mol⁻¹, 35 wt.% in H₂O, Sigma-Aldrich), PIP (99%, Sigma-Aldrich), MPD (99%, Sigma-Aldrich), TMC (>98.0%, TCI), hydrochloric acid (HCl, 35%, Daejung Chemical, Siheung, South Korea), NaCl (99.5%, Daejung Chemical), sodium hydroxide (NaOH, 98%, Daejung Chemical), n-hexane (99.5%, Daejung Chemical) were used as received. Deionized (DI) water (18.2 Ω) was prepared using a Millipore Milli-Q purification system. Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) ultrafiltration membranes (PAN50) were purchased from Nanostone Water (Waltham, MA, USA). Commercial RO membranes (SW30LE, SW30HR, BW30, and BW30LE from Dow Filmtec, Wilmington, DE, USA and SWC4+ from Hydranautics, Oceanside, CA, USA) were obtained from the manufactures.

Sinorhizobium meliloti Rm1021 was supplied by the Microbial Carbohydrate Resource Bank at Konkuk University, Korea. Chromium(III) chloride hexahydrate (95%) was purchased from Daejung Chemicals & Metals Co., Ltd. (Siheung, Korea). All other chemicals were of analytical grade and used without further purification. To vary the pH of the samples, sodium hydroxide (Daejung Chemicals & Metals Co., Ltd., Siheung, Korea, 97%) and hydrochloric acid, as a titration standard for preparation of 1 M or 0.1 M solution (Daejung Chemicals & Metals Co., Ltd., Siheung, Korea, 35–37%), were used.

Guar gum (Mw: 110 kDa) extra pure food grade was attained from Dabur India Limited. Poly (ethylene glycol) (Mw: 400), potassium dihydrogen phosphate (Mw: 141.96 g mol⁻¹), GLYMOL (Mw: 236.34 g mol⁻¹, 98%), acetic acid (Mw: 60.5 g mol⁻¹, 99.8%,) GO powder (product no. 746034, Mw: 4239.48 g mol⁻¹) and H₃BO₃ (Mw: 61.83 g mol⁻¹) were acquired from Sigma Aldrich. Hydrochloric acid (Mw: 36.46, AnalaR) and sodium hydroxide (Mw: 40 g mol⁻¹, Daejung) were used to prepare non-buffer solutions. In addition, disodium hydrogen phosphate (Mw: 177.99 g mol⁻¹, Scharlau), sodium chloride (Mw: 58.5 g mol⁻¹, Merck,), calcium chloride (Mw: 110.98 g mol⁻¹ Merck, anhydrous) and potassium chloride (Mw: 74.55 g mol⁻¹, Daejung) were brought into use for the preparation of phosphate buffer saline (PBS) solution.

Dried turmeric (moisture content 15.7 ± 0.1%, crude fat 6.4 ± 0.1, crude protein 7.7 ± 0.1, ash 6.5 ± 0.4) was kindly donated from Bibong Herb (Yangju-si, Korea) and kept in a deep freezer before use. Fermented ethanol, an extraction solvent, was provided by ethanol Supplies World Co. (Jeonju-si, Korea). Methyl alcohol, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, and hydrochloric acid were purchased from Daejung Chemicals & Metals Co. (Siheung-si, Korea). Folin-Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent, 2,2′-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt (ABTS), 2,2′-azobis (2-amidino-propane) dihydrochloride (AAPH), 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), gallic acid, catechin, ascorbic acid, HPLC analytical standard curcumin, demethoxycurcumin, bis-demethoxycurcumin, ferulic acid, and 2-Methoxy-4-vinylphenol were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA). Aluminum chloride and sodium nitrite were purchased from Junsei Chemical Co., LTD (Tokyo, Japan). HPLC grade water, acetonitrile, and methanol were purchased from Honeywell Burdick & Jackson Inc. (Charlotte, NC, USA).

Barium chloride dihydrate, ethanol, iron (II) sulfate heptahydrate, acetic acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, ammonium sulfate, sodium hydroxide, phenol, and sulfuric acid were purchased from Daejung (Seoul, Korea). From Sigma-Aldrich (St. Louis, MO, USA), 2,2-Azino-bis (3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) diammonium salt, 2,2-azobis (2-methylpropionamidine) dihydrochloride, 1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), gallic acid, glucose, Folin and Ciocalteu’s phenol reagent, peroxidase, α-(4-pyridyl N-oxide)-N-tert-butylnitrone, 5,5-dimethyl-1-pyrroline-N-oxide, 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein diacetate (DCF-DA), 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO), and gum arabic were purchased. RPMI-1640 medium, fetal bovine serum, penicillin-streptomycin, and trypsin were purchased from Gibco (Mississauga, ON, Canada). Sodium carbonate anhydrous (Yakuri, Japan), bicinchoninic acid protein assay kit (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, PA, USA), bovine serum albumin (Bovogen, East Keilor VIC, Australia) and hydrogen peroxide (Junsei, Tokyo, Japan) were used. Commercial food-grade enzymes (alcalase (Al), α-chymotrypsin (α-chy), flavourzyme (Fla), kojizyme (Koj), neutrase (Neu), papain (Pap), pepsin (Pep), protamex (Pro), and trypsin (Try)) were purchased from Novozyme (Bagsvaerd, Copenhagen, Denmark).