A piezo transducer (SMMOD15F120, Steminc INC.) was glued right next to the microfludic chamber using a 5 min epoxy (G14250, Devcon) as shown in Figure S11 in the Supporting Information. Solutions and suspensions were injected into the microfluidic device using a computer controlled syringe pump (neMESYS 290N, Cetoni). Before each experiment, channels were filled with ethanol to reduce the surface tension and avoid air bubble formation. The transducer was controlled by a function generator (AFG‐2225, Gw Instek) connected to a high voltage amplifier (HVA200, ThorLabs). Soft robotic microsystems were also excited using water immersion (GS200‐D19‐P50, The Ultran Group) and contact transducers (GC100‐D19, The Ultran Group) to demonstrate acoustic wave transmission in different configurations.
Hva200
Manufactured by Thorlabs
The HVA200 is a high-voltage amplifier designed for driving piezoelectric actuators. It features a 200 V output voltage range and a ±20 mA output current capability. The amplifier has a bandwidth of 20 kHz and provides an input voltage range of ±10 V.
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6 protocols using hva200
1
Microfluidic Piezo Transducer Integration
2
SPL Directivity and Frequency Response Measurement
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In the SPL directivity measurement, 1/2′ prepolarized Microphone and preamplifier system (378A06, PCB Inc.) with sensitivity of 12.6 mV Pa−1 and sensor signal conditioner (484B06, PCB Inc.) were used to measure the sound pressure. Precision potentiometer (Rourns Inc.) read the angle of FENG-based loudspeaker during the rotation process. The input signal is generated by an arbitrary Waveform generator (3,390, Keithley Inc.) through a voltage amplifier (HVA 200, Thorlabs Inc.). Up to 300 and 60 V are used for SPL directivity and frequency-response measurements, respectively. In the frequency-response measurement, a spectrum/network analyzer (3589A, Hewlett-Packard Inc.) is employed. The distance between the centre of FENG-based device and the head of microphone system for all the measurements is 12 cm. The output signals of all measurement were acquired by an integrated real-time Controller (cRIO-9075) with an analog input module (NI 9201, National Instruments Inc.).
3
Frequency Modulation Characterization of Metasurfaces
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The frequency modulation data is obtained via the same optical setup as the transmittance measurement, but instead the light was routed directly to the MCT detector, without passing through the FTIR. Mid-infrared bandpass filters centered at 7.5 µm (Edmund Optics, #17–247) and 11.5 µm (Thorlabs, FB11500-500) were used to select different resonances of the metasurface. The gate voltage was modulated using an arbitrary waveform generator (Keithley 3390) and a voltage amplifier (Thorlabs, HVA200) to provide a sinusoidal high-voltage to the gate. The root mean squared voltage from the MCT detector was measured using a 200 kHz lock-in amplifier (Stanford Research Systems, SR 830). The MCT detector responsivity rolls off below 200 Hz.
4
Frequency-Modulation SREF Imaging
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The details of the frequency-modulation method we adopt here can be found in our previous publication24 (link). The main difference comes from the signal detection part. For FM-SREF detection, a non-resonance electro-optic modulator (EO-AM-NR-C2, Thorlabs) is used, and it is driven by a 50-kHz square wave amplified by a high-voltage amplifier (HVA200, Thorlabs) to achieve more than 90% modulation depth. The square wave is generated by our home-built lock-in photon counter for the convenience of phase control and signal synchronization. For filter set configuration, a 2-mm-thick shortpass dichroic mirror (T785spxxr-UF2, Chroma) was used for flatness consideration, all the other optical filters used for nitrile-band SREF signal detection are the same as those used in our previous publication20 (link). The same objective (UPLSAPO, 1.2NA, Olympus) and detector (SPCM-NIR-14-FC, Excelitas) were used for all measurements and imaging. And all imaging scanning and data acquisition (including the lock-in photon counter) are driven by a Multifunction I/O card (USB-6259, NI) controlled with a LabVIEW-based home-built software. The detailed construction of the three systems used in this research can be found in Fig. S1 , Fig. S2c , and Fig. 4a . The lock-in photon counter can be coded by following the time sequence diagram shown in Fig. S3 .
5
Ultrafast Imaging of Cavitation Dynamics
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To drive the piezoelectric transducer hemispherical or planar transducer with a resonance frequency of 1 MHz, we used a RITEC Gated RF amplifier (GA 2500A). The duty cycle of the instrument is 0.1%, but the maximum pulse width that can be obtained is 200 μs, limited by the hardware. To amplify longer pulse widths, we have used Thorlabs HVA 200, which could provide pulse durations longer than 10 ms, with the maximum amplitude of 80 V. In the imaging setup, light-emitting diode (LED) array or collimated high-power LED was used for the illumination. We installed a 100-mm convex lens at the 4-K radiation shield whose focal plane was at the center of the experimental chamber. To collect the light, an infinity corrected tube lens (Edmond MT1) with a focal length of 200 mm was used near the 300-K window. The combination of the convex lens and the tube lens helped in focusing the central plane of the chamber at the imaging sensor. The magnification of this optical system was ×2 . We have used either Photron SA4 or Mini Cam for recording the high-speed videos. The frames per second varied from 10,000 to 225,000 fps depending on the experimental requirements. For cavitation measurements, we only consider events in the bulk and not events that occur very close to the surface of the liquid or the ultrasonic transducer.
6
Variable Phase Plate Laser Scanning
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The EOM was driven by a voltage amplifier (HVA200, Thorlabs), which was controlled by a function generator (SDG1062X, Siglent). Intensity signals from the photo diode were acquired with an oscilloscope (SDS2104X-Plus, Siglent). The function generator and the oscilloscope were triggered by the SLM at the start of an image sequence. Additionally, the SLM produces a trigger signal when a valid pattern is established, which was used to switch off the lasers during the pattern switching via a TTL signal. Camera images were recorded asynchronously. For dual-color measurements, we used a custom TTL signal converter in combination with the function generator to alternate between the 561 nm and 638 nm laser line.
Note that our time resolution for 1D probing of 1 μs is currently limited by the electronics for EOM scanning and the bandwidth of the photo diode and can in principle be one order of magnitude faster. Such high speeds might not be necessary for MINFLUX but could be useful for other applications of the variable phase plate.
Note that our time resolution for 1D probing of 1 μs is currently limited by the electronics for EOM scanning and the bandwidth of the photo diode and can in principle be one order of magnitude faster. Such high speeds might not be necessary for MINFLUX but could be useful for other applications of the variable phase plate.
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