Coolpix

For each experiment, 5-d-old uniformly grown seedlings were transferred to treatment mediums and positions of their root tips were marked at the back sides of plates. Digital images of seedlings were captured using Nikon Coolpix digital camera after 3 d. For gravitropic-bending kinetics, pictures were taken at different time intervals after gravistimulation. The root deviation was measured by calculating the angle of root from the vertical axis using ImageJ (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/). Root elongation was measured using ImageJ. Root coiling and waving response was studied as described previously (Buer et al., 2003 (link); Chen et al., 2009 (link)). Digital images were captured and processed using ImageJ. For biomass, 5-d-old uniformly grown seedlings were transferred to treatment medium for 10 d, root and shoot tissues were harvested, and fresh weight was measured. The area spanned by roots was measured using ImageJ.

Images were captured weekly with a digital camera (Coolpix, Nikon Inc., Tokyo, Japan) to record clinical symptoms on the ear and dorsal skin. Ear thickness was measured using a dial gauge (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan) on day 30. Ear and skin epidermal thickness were measured using Masson’s stain and the aid of a microscope with Image-Pro Plus software (version 6.0 for Windows).

The abovementioned five different types of land cover plots have a 43560-square-foot area (1 acre) for each type. Digital photographs of bare land, desert rangeland, fertile cultivated land, green pasture, and Sutlej river land are taken by a digital Nikon camera, model COOLPIX having a 10.1-megapixel resolution, which are shown in Figure 2. The 15 colored images of each type of land cover with the dimensions of 4288 × 3216 pixels and 24-bit depth of jpg format are acquired. To increase the dataset, four nonoverlapping regions of interests (ROIs) of size (512 × 512) on each image are developed; in this way total (75 × 4 = 300) subimages data are arranged for the analysis. The photographic data are acquired at the altitude of 5 feet from the ground surface of the same specific location where radiometric data are acquired.
To keep away from the sun shadow effect, the data are acquired at noontime (1.00 pm to 3.00 pm) under a clear sky. At the time of data acquisition, the light intensity is measured by digital Luxmeter MS 6610, MATECH, and described in Table 1.

Non‐destructive estimates of canopy area were made using photographs of all plants at all garden sites during July in 2010 and 2014. Images were taken using a Nikon Coolpix camera from directly above each plant with white background. A ruler was placed next to the plant to set image scale. Images were imported into ImageJ v1.8.0 and converted to black and white to delineate plant from background. Canopy area was determined by pixel counts (Image J, Rasband 1997–2008, online resource‐https://imagej.nih.gov/ij/) after selecting outline of plant and using a reference scale to provide area in cm². Measurement error was approximately 2% based on repeated measurements of the same ImageJ photographs. On a separate set of non‐study plants, we correlated ImageJ canopy area with actual leaf area measurements (the gold standard for leaf area) from plants using a leaf scanner (Figure S2, r = .95 p < .0001).