Rosmarinic

Pepsin from porcine stomach mucosa (250 U/mg), pancreatin (8 × USP) from porcine pancreas, porcine bile extract, mucin from porcine stomach-type II, albumin, resazurin, cysteine, peptone, yeast extract, pectin, xylan, gum arabic, potato starch, casein, glucose, and inulin were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. (St. Louis, MO, USA). Phenolic compounds standards (2,4 dihydroxybenzoic, 3,4 dihydroxybenzoic, gallic, benzoic, caffeic, ferulic, p-coumaric, salicylic, rosmarinic, and 5-caffeoylquinic acids) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich Chemical Co. All solvents were HPLC grade from Tedia (Fairfield, OH, USA). HPLC grade water (Milli-Q system, Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA) was used throughout the experiments.

Phosphatidylcholine (egg yolk), 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH), Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, sodium cholate, sodium carbonate, Triton X-100, a mixture of penicillin, neomycin, streptomycin dissolved in 0.9% NaCl (PSN), L-ascorbic acid, hydrogen peroxide 30% (w/w) (H₂O₂), PBS, fetal equine serum (FES), Eagle’s minimum essential medium (EMEM), and 0.25% trypsin-ethylene-diamine-tetraacetic-acid (EDTA) solution were acquired from Sigma-Aldrich (Darmstadt, Germany). High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) standards, catechin hydrate, (-)epicatechin, rutin hydrate, kaempferol, myricetin, quercetin, and trans-resveratrol, as well as caffeic, chlorogenic, p-coumaric, gallic, rosmarinic, protocatechuic, caftaric, vanillic, syringic, trans-ferulic, ellagic dihydrate, and chicoric acids, were acquired from Sigma-Aldrich (Darmstadt, Germany). Rhodamine B from Sigma-Aldrich (Darmstadt, Germany), WGA-AlexaFluor 488 conjugate from Thermo Fischer (Waltham, Massachusetts State or Province, US), and Hoechst 33342 from Molecular Probes (Eugene, Oregon, US) were used as fluorophores. The murine fibroblast cell line (L-929) was obtained from ATCC^®CRL-6364™ (Manassas, Virginia, US) and the CellTiter96^®aqueous non-radioactive cell proliferation assay was purchased from Promega (Madison, WI, USA).

Lyophilised and powdered samples (about 250 mg) were extracted with 2 mL of methanol using sonication (10 min at 25 ± 2 °C) and centrifuged for 10 min at 15,000 rpm. The supernatant was filtered through 0.22 μm filter (Millex^®GP, Millipore, Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). RP-HPLC analyses was carried out according to Simlat et al.^{34 (link)} using a Merck–Hitachi liquid chromatograph (LaChrom Elite, Hitachi, Tokyo, Japan) equipped with a DAD detector L-2455 and Purospher^®RP-18e (250 × 4 mm/5 mm) column (Merck, Darmstadt, Germany). Quantification was carried out at λ = 254 nm for phenolic acids and λ = 370 nm for flavonoids. Identification was performed through a comparison of the retention times of the peaks with authentic reference compounds and co-chromatography with standards. Quantification consisted of measurement of the peak area with reference to the standard curve derived from five concentrations (0.03125–0.5 mg ml⁻¹). Commercially available standards of the phenolic acids: chlorogenic, neochlorogenic (Sigma–Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA), isochlorogenic A (ChromaDex, Irvine, CA, USA), and rosmarinic (Sigma–Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA), as well as the flavonoids isoquercetin, and quercitrin (Sigma–Aldrich, St Louis, MO, USA), were used to generate the calibration curves. The analysis was repeated three times.