Participants performed two separate tasks: a physical effort-discounting task (performed outside the scanner), and a non-instrumental information-seeking task with physical effort costs (while being scanned). Participants completed both tasks in a single session, with the order of tasks counter-balanced across participants. Stimuli were presented using the Psychophysics Toolbox implemented in MATLAB R2015b (Mathworks Inc., US). Participants held an fMRI-compatible dynamometer (SS25LA, BIOPAC Systems, USA) in their dominant (right) hand, and provided button responses with their non-dominant (left) hand.
Ss25la
Manufactured by Biopac
Sourced in United States
The SS25LA is a general-purpose linear analog sensor interface module for BIOPAC data acquisition systems. It provides signal conditioning and amplification for a variety of analog sensors and transducers.
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5 protocols using ss25la
1
Effort-Discounting and Information-Seeking Tasks
2
Behavioral Testing with Force Responses
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Behavioural testing took place in a quiet room with only the participant and the experimenter present. All tasks were presented on a 17-inch touchscreen PC using MATLAB version 2018 (MathWorks; https://uk.mathworks.com ) and Psychtoolbox80 (version 3). Force responses were recorded using a dynamometer (SS25LA, BIOPAC Systems) held in the dominant hand.
3
Physical Effort Task: Dynamometer-Based Protocol
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In the physical effort task, participants exerted one of six levels of force on a hand-held dynamometer (SS25LA, BIOPAC Systems) using their dominant hand (Fig. 1 C,D; Chong et al., 2018a (link); Atkins et al., 2020 (link)). At the beginning of the experiment, we determined individuals’ maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), which was defined as the maximum of three consecutive ballistic squeezes. To standardize effort requirements across participants, we defined the target effort levels for each individual as a function of their MVC (4–44%, in increments of 8%). Target levels were depicted as a horizontal yellow line on a vertical bar, and participants received real-time visual feedback of their applied force.
Each trial in the physical effort task commenced with a red pie chart, which cued the level of physical effort required on that trial. Participants then had to initiate and maintain their contraction above the required effort level for ≥50% of the total trial duration to be successfully rewarded. The physical effort task was identical to the cognitive effort task with respect to trial durations (10 s per effort level); number of trials per effort level; and overall block structure. The physical effort task was implemented on Psychtoolbox (Psychtoolbox.org">http://Psychtoolbox.org ) in MATLAB (The MathWorks).
Each trial in the physical effort task commenced with a red pie chart, which cued the level of physical effort required on that trial. Participants then had to initiate and maintain their contraction above the required effort level for ≥50% of the total trial duration to be successfully rewarded. The physical effort task was identical to the cognitive effort task with respect to trial durations (10 s per effort level); number of trials per effort level; and overall block structure. The physical effort task was implemented on Psychtoolbox (
4
Physical Effort Task: Dynamometer-Based Protocol
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In the physical effort task, participants exerted one of six levels of force on a hand-held dynamometer (SS25LA, BIOPAC Systems) using their dominant hand (Fig. 1 C,D; Chong et al., 2018a (link); Atkins et al., 2020 (link)). At the beginning of the experiment, we determined individuals’ maximum voluntary contraction (MVC), which was defined as the maximum of three consecutive ballistic squeezes. To standardize effort requirements across participants, we defined the target effort levels for each individual as a function of their MVC (4–44%, in increments of 8%). Target levels were depicted as a horizontal yellow line on a vertical bar, and participants received real-time visual feedback of their applied force.
Each trial in the physical effort task commenced with a red pie chart, which cued the level of physical effort required on that trial. Participants then had to initiate and maintain their contraction above the required effort level for ≥50% of the total trial duration to be successfully rewarded. The physical effort task was identical to the cognitive effort task with respect to trial durations (10 s per effort level); number of trials per effort level; and overall block structure. The physical effort task was implemented on Psychtoolbox (Psychtoolbox.org">http://Psychtoolbox.org ) in MATLAB (The MathWorks).
Each trial in the physical effort task commenced with a red pie chart, which cued the level of physical effort required on that trial. Participants then had to initiate and maintain their contraction above the required effort level for ≥50% of the total trial duration to be successfully rewarded. The physical effort task was identical to the cognitive effort task with respect to trial durations (10 s per effort level); number of trials per effort level; and overall block structure. The physical effort task was implemented on Psychtoolbox (
5
Cognitive and Physical Effort Discounting Paradigm
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We applied a cognitive and physical effort discounting paradigm, details of which have been previously reported.33 (link),34 (link) The paradigm consists of two phases. First, participants engaged in a Reinforcement Phase, in which they were trained on: (1) a cognitively effortful task, and (2) a physically effortful task, across separate, counterbalanced blocks. In the subsequent Choice Phase, we examined the willingness of individuals to exert cognitive or physical effort in return for reward. In both tasks, the stimuli were displayed on a 17-inch laptop monitor at a refresh rate of 60Hz positioned ~45cm from the participant. The cognitive effort task was implemented in Presentation software,36 and the physical effort task in the Psychtoolbox package run in MATLAB.37 Participants’ responses were registered with a standard computer keyboard for the cognitive task, and a hand-held dynamometer for the physical task (SS25LA, BIOPAC systems, USA).
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