Stata 2017

All results were recorded on electronic tablets in the field. Statistical analyses were performed on Stata 2017 (Stata Statistical Software 15. College Station, TX: StataCorp LLC). Chi-squared and Fisher’s exact tests were used to assess for association between prevalence by both urine-CCA and K-K, with age, gender and village.

To study the bacterial response (i.e., depolarization), generalized estimating equations (GEE) were used. To do this, the experimental variations in the proportion of depolarized cells among the different experimental groups (treatments or times) were evaluated. To compare how much the probability of depolarization changes (increases or decreases) between treatments, we use logit as the link function, thus creating multilevel logistic regression models (MLLR). In these models, the biological replicate was chosen as the grouping variable (panel variable) to consider the possible dependency of the data. The statistical analyses used, p-values, and the number of replicate measurements (N) are stated in the Results section and each figure legend. For all cases, a minimum of three biological replicates consisting of three technical replicates were used. Unless otherwise indicated, data are represented as mean $\pm$ standard error of the mean (SEM). The significance level was set to 0.05 in all cases. Statistical analysis and graphs were performed using STATA 2017 (Stata Statistical Software: Release 15., College Station, TX, USA) and GraphPad Prism v. 8.0.2.(GraphPad Software, Inc., Boston, MA, USA).