D max 2550vb pc

The morphology and microstructure of the GO and rGO/TiO₂ nanocomposites were characterized on the scanning electron microscopy (SEM; Regulus8230), transmission electron microscopy (TEM; JEM-2100) and high-resolution TEM (HRTEM; TecnaiG2F20). The crystalline structure of samples was observed by X-ray diffraction (XRD; RIGAKU, D/max-2550VB + /PC) equipped with Cu Ka radiation (18 kW, 10° ≤ 2θ ≤ 90°). The chemical composition of the membranes was characterized by using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, Thermo Scientific, Escalab 250Xi) provided with Al Kα source and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR; Bruker, VERTEX70) using KBr tabletting method. The phase structure was observed by laser Raman spectrometer (Renishaw inVia-Reflex) using a 532 nm laser line in the wavelength range of 100–3,000 cm⁻¹ at room temperature.

The phase characterization of the TiO₂ films deposited on silicon substrates at different working pressures with RF power of 150 W, with and without bias, was carried out by X-ray diffraction (XRD), using CuK_α radiation (λ = 0.154056 nm) for 2θ values ranging from 20° to 80°. The diffractometer (XRD, Rigaku D/max 2550 VB/PC, Rigaku, Tokyo, Japan) was operated at 40 kV and 200 mA with a scanning speed of 8°/min at 2θ steps of 0.020°. The angle of the incident beam was 0.9°. The surface topography of the said TiO₂ films, deposited under the same conditions, was characterized by atomic force microscopy (AFM, Nanoscope 3A, DI, USA) and the root-mean-square (RMS) roughness was estimated by an image analysis software called Nanoscope®III. The wettability of the films' surface was observed through water contact angle measurements, using contact angle measurement equipment (OCA 20, Dataphysics, Germany).

The morphology and pore sizes of DPS particles were observed via field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM; SU8010, Tokyo, Japan) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM; Talos F200S, Waltham, MA, USA). The crystalline structure, porous structure and specific surface area were analyzed and evaluated using X-ray diffraction (XRD; D/max-2550VB+/PC, Rigaku, Japan), small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXSess mc2, Graz, Austria) and N₂ adsorption/desorption isotherms (Quadrasorb-SI, Pittsburgh, PA, USA), respectively.

The crystalline structure of the wheat bran was measured using an X-ray diffractometer (D/Max2550VB/PC, Rigaku Corporation, Tokyo, Japan), according to the method of Zhang et al. [24 ].
An appropriate amount of wheat bran was pressed into a sheet and then the sheet was scanned with Cu-Kα radial under 40 kV and 30 mA and at a diffraction angle (2θ) that ranged from 5° to 40° at 2°/min in steps of 0.02°. Then, the crystallinity index (CI) of the wheat bran was calculated using Equation (2): $$\mathrm{Crystallinity}\mathrm{index}(\%)=\frac{I_{002}-I_{am}}{I_{002}}\times 100$$
where I₀₀₂ is the maximum intensity of the diffraction angle and I_am is the diffraction intensity at 2θ = 18°.

The chemical states of Cs, Sn, Ce and Cl were determined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS, ESCALAB 250Xi, Thermo Fisher, Basingstoke, UK). The XRD patterns of the sample were measured by an X-ray diffractometer (D/MAX 2550 VB/PC, Rigaku Corporation, Tokyo, Japan). The doping concentration of Ce³⁺ was determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-AES, Agilent, Santa Clara, CA, USA). The reflectance and fluorescence spectra of the samples were measured by an UV-visible spectrophotometer (UV-2550, Shimadzu, Kyoto, Japan) and a molecular fluorescence spectrometer (Fluorolog-3-P, Jobin Yvon, Paris, France). The fluorescence quantum efficiency and fluorescence lifetime of the Cs₂SnCl₆: Ce were determined by a fluorescence spectrometer with an integrating sphere (FLS980, Edinburgh instrument Ltd., Livingston, UK).