Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) (Hitachi SU8000, Tokyo, Japan) and an Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) (multi-mode 8 AFM, Brucker, Santa Barbara, CA, USA) were used to study the membrane morphology.
The membrane hydrophobicity was determined by water contact angle (WCA). The sessile drop method using the Contact Angle System OCA (Data Physics, Filderstadt, Germany) apparatus was used for the WCA measurements. The measurements were performed for each type of studied membranes, repeated five times across the surface of the sample and the mean value of WCA was determined.
Diameters of membrane pores were measured via a mercury porosimetry technique using Autopore III (Micrometrics GmbH, Aachen, Germany).
Distillate conductivity was measured with a 6P Ultrameter (Myron L Company, Carlsbad, CA, USA).
The oil content in the solutions was examined by infrared method using an oil analyzer OCMA 500 manufactured by Horiba (Kyoto, Japan).