Pepsin (catalogue No. 64007137) and pancreatin (catalogue No. 64006737) were purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co., Ltd., China, and bile extract (porcine; catalogue No. B822609) was purchased from Macklin, Shanghai, China. All the organic acids used, including citric acid, malic acid, lactic acid and acetic acid, were of analytical purity.
Dietary supplements (vitamin B6 (VB6), vitamin C (VC), vitamin E (VE), folic acid (VB9), niacin (VB3), copper (Cu), methionine (Met) and coenzyme Q10 (Q10) and procyanidins (OPC) were of an excellent level of purity and were purchased from Macklin reagent company.
High-purity deionized water from a Milli-Q Plus system (Millipore, Bedford, MA, USA) was used for dilutions and washes. Element concentrations were determined by inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometry (ICP-MS) on an Elan DRC-e system (PerkinElmer, Massachusetts, USA), whose limits of detection (LODs) were 0.1–1 ng g−1 for Se and Zn and less than 0.1 ng g−1 for Cd.