Nanoscope 4

MoS₂ flakes were prepared on highly doped Si/SiO₂ substrates by mechanical exfoliation of bulk MoS₂ purchased from SPI Supplies. Thickness of MoS₂ was estimated via optical color contrast and confirmed by atomic force microscopy (Nanoscope IV, Veeco). 100 nm of Ti electrodes were patterned by electron beam lithography and deposited by electron beam evaporation followed by lift-off in acetone. The same processes were applied for Pt electrodes after Ti electrodes formation. The device performance was characterized by typical source/drain and source/gate voltage modulation (Keithley 2400 source meter) with room temperature probe station.

Interleave mode of electric force microscopy (Nanoscope IV, Veeco) with PtIr-coated n-doped silicon probe tip (SCM-PIT, Veeco) were used for surface potential measurements. Topological profile of the surface was provided by the first scan of the tip followed by its second scan to measure electrostatic force between the surface and tip. V_contact can be obtained by this technique as a feedback potential that minimize the amplitude of oscillation.

The J-V curves were obtained by a Keithley 2400 source under the AM 1.5 G irradiation (100 mW cm⁻²). All devices were tested from 2 to − 0.1 V at a rate of 10 mV s⁻¹. EQE spectra was recorded using a Q Test Station 500TI system (Crowntech, Inc. USA). XRD patterns were taken with D/MAX 2400 diffractometer. XPS and UPS were analyzed using a photoelectron spectrometer (ESCALAB250Xi, Thermo Fisher Scientific), UV/Vis NIR spectrophotometer was used to obtain absorption spectra of perovskite films (Per-kinElmer, Lambda 950), PL and TRPL spectra (excitation at 510 nm) were measured using a FLS980 spectrometer and PicoQuant FluoQuant 300, respectively. Surface and cross-sectional SEM images were perform by a field-emission SEM (HITACHI, SU-8020), AFM images were produced by Veeco Nano Scope IV with a silicon cantilever, FTIR spectra were investigated with a Bruker Vertex 70. For NMR measurements, JNM-ECZ400S/L1 with a frequency of 400 MHz were used, FAI, MAI, PbI₂, and BBF were dissolve in d6-DMSO. ToF–SIMS characterization was detected by a ION TOF–SIMS 5. Water contact angles were tested using a DataPhysics OCA 20.

AFM is an appropriate method for the characterization of pre-fibrillar protein assemblies. Here, 5 μl of a 40 μM Aβ peptide solution were applied on a 0.5 mm² freshly cleaved sheet of mica for 10–30 seconds and then removed by fast spinning off. AFM images were recorded using a MultiMode scanning probe microscope (either NanoScope IIIa, Digital Instruments Inc., or NanoScope IV, Veeco Instruments Inc., Santa Barbara, California, USA), equipped with a 10 μm scanner (E-scanner). Height and phase images were recorded in tapping mode with scan rates of 2–4 lines per second and a resolution of 512 × 512 pixels. Olympus etched silicon cantilevers were used with a typical resonance frequency in the range of 60–80 kHz and a spring constant of 2 N/m. All samples were investigated on dry substrates of mica (PLANO W. Plannet GmbH, Wetzlar, Germany) at room temperature open to air.

The morphology of cationic lipids and corresponding pDNA or siRNA complexes were executed by atom force microscopy. The samples were prepared by dropping cationic lipids or complexes solutions (prepared as described above) onto fresh mica, and air-dried at room temperature prior to AFM measurements. Then, image was performed on Nanoscope IV atomic force microscope (Veeco Instruments) at room temperature.

The sheet resistance (R_S) was measured with a four-point probe system, which was used to calculate the electrical conductivity (σ) with the equation σ = 1/(R_S × t). The thickness (t) of samples was measured with an alpha-step profilometer (Veeco, Dektak Stylus Profilometer)^{18 (link),19 (link)}. The surface morphology of samples were acquired by atomic force microscopy (AFM, Veeco, NanoScope IV) with tapping mode at a scan rate of 1 Hz under ambient atmosphere. X-ray diffraction patterns were obtained by a Bruker D8 advance diffractometer, with a Cu K_α X-ray source (40 kV, 40 mA). Raman spectra were recorded with a Horiba Jobin-Yvon LabRam Aramis spectrometer with 632.8 nm line of a He-Ne laser. The X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) spectra were recorded using SIGMA PROBE Model. The Hardness was obtained using AFM nanoindentation with spring constant of the cantilever 375 N m⁻¹, 70 KHz. The average hardness was obtained by measuring 10 different locations on each film. The thermovoltage generated by temperature difference between hot and cold region in the film was measured with a digital multimeter (Agilent 3458 A) as the temperature difference was checked by two type-K thermocouples connected to each electrode^{19 (link)}.