Mitochondrial NAD(P)H autofluorescence was measured by fluorescence microscopy with an UV filter. Cytosolic NAD+/NADH ratio was measured using Peredox17 (link) (Addgene 32383). Total intracellular NAD+/NADH ratio was measured using the NAD+/NADH Quantitation Kit (BioVision) and the EnzyChrom NAD+/NADH Assay Kit (BioAssay Systems). Lactate and pyruvate concentrations were measured using Lactate and Pyruvate Assay Kits (Cayman Chemical).