Our primary variable of interest was race/ethnicity, which we classified using the US census categories non-Latino White (referred to as White), non-Latino Black (referred to as Black), Hispanic/Latino (referred to as Latino), and non-Latino Asian (referred to as Asian). To address confounding, regression models included the following covariates: age (18–24, 25–34, 35–44, 45-54, 55–64, 65+), sex (males, females), indicator for chronic pain, and indicators for behavioral health disorder diagnoses (anxiety disorder, bipolar disorder, major depression disorder, schizophrenia disorder, alcohol use disorder, cocaine use disorder, cannabis use disorder, and tobacco use disorder). We used ICD-10 codes, as in prior research [50 (link)], to identify chronic pain in the electronic health record.